Alexander Hamilton

Alexander Hamilton
Posthumous portrait by John Trumbull, 1806, based on a life bust by Giuseppe Ceracchi, 1794
Alexander Hamilton
Born	January 11, 1755 or 1757
Birthplace	Charlestown, Nevis
Died	July 12, 1804 New York City, U.S.
Nationality	American
Occupation	Military officer, statesman, lawyer
Known for	First U.S. Secretary of the Treasury; co-author of The Federalist Papers; founder of the Federalist Party; founder of the Bank of New York
Education	King's College (now Columbia University)
Spouse(s)	Template:Marriage
Awards	Major general (U.S. Army)

Alexander Hamilton (January 11, 1755 or 1757 – July 12, 1804) was an American military officer, statesman, lawyer, and Founding Father who served as the first United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1789 to 1795 under President George Washington. Born out of wedlock on the Caribbean island of Nevis, orphaned as a child, and raised with the support of a prosperous merchant, Hamilton rose from obscurity to become one of the most consequential figures in the establishment of the American republic. During the American Revolutionary War, he served as an artillery officer and as Washington's chief aide-de-camp before leading a decisive infantry charge at the Siege of Yorktown. After the war, he was a principal advocate for replacing the Articles of Confederation with a stronger federal constitution, authoring 51 of the 85 installments of The Federalist Papers to argue for the document's ratification. As Treasury Secretary, Hamilton designed the nation's financial architecture, creating the First Bank of the United States, establishing a system for federal assumption of state war debts, and founding the United States Revenue Cutter Service, the forerunner of the United States Coast Guard. He founded the Federalist Party, the first American political party, and remained a central figure in national politics until his death in a duel with Vice President Aaron Burr in 1804.

Early Life

Alexander Hamilton was born in Charlestown, the capital of the island of Nevis in the British West Indies. The exact year of his birth has been a subject of historical debate; evidence supports either 1755 or 1757. He was the illegitimate son of James Hamilton, a Scottish trader of minor aristocratic background, and Rachel Faucette (also spelled Fawcett), a woman of British and French Huguenot descent who had previously been married to Johann Michael Lavien on the island of Saint Croix.

Hamilton's early childhood was marked by instability and hardship. His father abandoned the family, and his mother died when Alexander was approximately eleven years old, leaving him and his older brother James effectively orphaned. Following Rachel's death, the two boys were taken in by relatives and community members on Saint Croix. A prosperous merchant, Thomas Stevens, is believed to have played a significant role in Hamilton's upbringing during this period.

As a young adolescent, Hamilton found employment as a clerk at the trading firm of Beekman and Cruger on Saint Croix, where he demonstrated precocious talent for commerce and administration. His intellectual abilities attracted the attention of local patrons who, impressed by a letter he wrote describing a devastating hurricane that struck the island, organized a collection to fund his passage to the North American colonies for further education.

Hamilton arrived in the American colonies in 1772 or 1773, settling initially in Elizabethtown, New Jersey, where he attended a preparatory school. He soon moved to New York City, where he would begin his formal higher education and become drawn into the revolutionary politics that would define his career.

Education

Hamilton enrolled at King's College (now Columbia University) in New York City, where he pursued an accelerated course of study. Despite his youth, he became an active participant in the intellectual and political ferment of pre-revolutionary New York. While still a student, he wrote anonymous pamphlets defending the Continental Congress and the colonial cause against British taxation policies, earning a reputation as a prolific and persuasive political writer.

His pamphlets were widely read and were sometimes attributed to more established figures such as John Jay, a testament to the sophistication of Hamilton's arguments at such a young age. The outbreak of armed conflict between the colonies and Great Britain interrupted Hamilton's studies before he completed his degree, as he shifted his energies to military service. He later received a Master of Arts degree from Columbia College after the war.

Career

Revolutionary War Service

With the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, Hamilton organized an artillery company in New York in 1776, receiving a captain's commission from the New York Provincial Congress. He saw action in the New York and New Jersey campaign, commanding his artillery unit during several engagements in the battles around New York City and during the Continental Army's retreat across New Jersey.

Hamilton and his artillery company participated in the pivotal Battle of Trenton on December 26, 1776, and the subsequent Battle of Princeton in early January 1777, where Washington's forces achieved crucial victories over Hessian and British troops that revived American morale during one of the war's darkest periods.

Hamilton's performance in these engagements and his evident administrative and intellectual abilities attracted the attention of General George Washington, who in March 1777 appointed Hamilton as his aide-de-camp with the rank of lieutenant colonel. For the next four years, Hamilton served as Washington's principal staff officer, managing correspondence, drafting orders, conducting diplomatic communications with French allies, and serving as a key intermediary between the commander in chief and Congress, other generals, and state governors.

In 1781, eager for a field command and a chance to distinguish himself in battle, Hamilton left Washington's staff after a disagreement and was given command of a light infantry battalion. He led this unit in the decisive Siege of Yorktown in October 1781, personally commanding an assault on a key British fortification, Redoubt No. 10, in a nighttime bayonet attack that helped seal the American and French victory. The British surrender at Yorktown effectively ended major combat operations in the war and secured American independence.

Post-War Legal and Political Career

After the war, Hamilton studied law in Albany, New York, and was admitted to the bar in 1782. He quickly established a successful legal practice in New York City, where he represented a variety of clients, including Loyalists seeking to recover property confiscated during the war — cases that helped establish important legal precedents regarding property rights and the rule of law in the new nation.

Hamilton served as a delegate from New York to the Congress of the Confederation in Philadelphia from November 1782 to June 1783. During this period, he grew increasingly frustrated with the weakness of the national government under the Articles of Confederation, which he viewed as inadequate for managing the financial obligations of the new nation, resolving interstate disputes, or maintaining national defense.

He resigned from Congress and returned to legal practice, founding the Bank of New York in 1784, one of the oldest banking institutions in the United States.

In 1786, Hamilton played a leading role at the Annapolis Convention, a meeting of delegates from several states convened to address problems of interstate commerce. The convention, though poorly attended, produced a report — largely drafted by Hamilton — calling for a broader constitutional convention to address the fundamental deficiencies of the Articles of Confederation.

The Constitutional Convention and The Federalist Papers

Hamilton served as a delegate from New York to the Philadelphia Convention of 1787, which drafted the United States Constitution. At the convention, Hamilton advocated for a strong centralized national government, presenting a plan that proposed, among other things, a president and senators serving during "good behaviour" — essentially life terms. Although his proposals were considered too monarchical by most delegates and were not adopted, Hamilton supported the final document as a significant improvement over the Articles of Confederation and signed it on behalf of New York.

Hamilton's most enduring contribution to the ratification debate was his central role in writing The Federalist Papers, a series of 85 essays published under the pseudonym "Publius" to advocate for ratification of the Constitution by the states. Hamilton conceived the project, recruited James Madison and John Jay as co-authors, and personally authored 51 of the 85 essays. The essays systematically addressed the structure and powers of the proposed federal government, defended the system of checks and balances, and argued for the necessity of a stronger union. The Federalist Papers became one of the foundational texts of American constitutional law and political theory, and they continue to be cited by courts, scholars, and political figures in constitutional interpretation.

Hamilton also served as a delegate to the New York ratifying convention in 1788, where he argued forcefully for adoption of the Constitution against a strong Anti-Federalist majority led by Governor George Clinton. New York ultimately ratified the Constitution in July 1788.

Secretary of the Treasury

President George Washington appointed Hamilton as the first United States Secretary of the Treasury on September 11, 1789, a position he held until January 31, 1795. In this role, Hamilton designed the financial infrastructure of the new federal government, producing a series of influential reports that laid out his economic vision for the nation.

Hamilton's first major initiative was his Report on Public Credit (1790), in which he proposed that the federal government assume the outstanding war debts of the individual states and consolidate them with the existing national debt. This assumption plan was politically contentious, as states that had already paid down their debts, particularly in the South, objected to bearing the costs of states that had not. The plan was ultimately enacted as part of a political compromise — brokered in part over a private dinner with Thomas Jefferson and James Madison — that included the agreement to locate the permanent national capital on the Potomac River in what would become Washington, D.C.

To fund the consolidated national debt, Hamilton advocated for tariffs on imports and an excise tax on domestically produced whiskey. The Whiskey Tax proved deeply unpopular in western frontier regions, where small farmers relied on whiskey as both a beverage and a medium of exchange. Opposition to the tax culminated in the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794 in western Pennsylvania, which Washington and Hamilton suppressed by leading a militia force of approximately 13,000 troops into the region — a demonstration of the new federal government's authority and willingness to enforce its laws.

Hamilton's most far-reaching financial initiative was his proposal, outlined in the Report on a National Bank (1790), for the creation of the First Bank of the United States, a national bank modeled in part on the Bank of England. The proposal met fierce opposition from Jefferson and Madison, who argued that the Constitution did not explicitly grant Congress the power to charter a bank. Hamilton countered with a broad interpretation of the Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause, arguing that the power to create a bank was implied by the government's enumerated powers to tax, borrow money, and regulate commerce. Washington accepted Hamilton's reasoning, and the bank was chartered in 1791. Hamilton's doctrine of implied powers became a foundational principle of American constitutional law, later upheld by the Supreme Court in McCulloch v. Maryland (1819).

Hamilton also submitted his Report on Manufactures (1791), in which he argued for government support of domestic industry through protective tariffs, subsidies, and internal improvements. While Congress did not adopt the report's recommendations in full during Hamilton's lifetime, the report articulated an economic vision of a diversified, industrialized economy that influenced American economic policy for generations.

In 1790, Hamilton persuaded Congress to establish the United States Revenue Cutter Service, a fleet of armed revenue cutters tasked with enforcing tariff laws and protecting American shipping. The Revenue Cutter Service later became the nucleus of the United States Coast Guard.

Foreign Policy and Party Politics

Hamilton played a central role in shaping American foreign policy during the 1790s. Following the outbreak of the French Revolution and the subsequent wars between France and Great Britain, Hamilton advocated for American neutrality and opposed the United States' involvement with the succession of unstable French revolutionary governments, in contrast to Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans, who were broadly sympathetic to the French revolutionary cause.

In 1793, Hamilton supported the Jay Treaty, negotiated by Chief Justice John Jay with Great Britain. The treaty resolved several outstanding disputes from the Revolutionary War period, including British occupation of military posts in the American Northwest, and restored trade relations between the two nations. The treaty was deeply controversial, with opponents charging that it was too favorable to Britain and that it betrayed American commitments to France. Hamilton defended the treaty publicly, writing a series of essays under the pseudonym "Camillus."

Hamilton's economic and foreign policy positions formed the basis of the Federalist Party, which he co-founded in the early 1790s. The Federalist Party — the first organized political party in the United States — favored a strong national government, a national bank, close commercial ties with Britain, and support for manufacturing. It was opposed by the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Jefferson and Madison, which favored states' rights, an agrarian economy, and closer relations with France.

Hamilton and other Federalists supported the Haitian Revolution, and Hamilton helped draft Haiti's constitution in 1801.

Later Career and the Election of 1800

Hamilton resigned as Secretary of the Treasury in January 1795 and returned to his law practice in New York, but he continued to exercise significant influence over national affairs. He remained a close adviser to President Washington and helped draft Washington's Farewell Address of 1796.

During the presidency of John Adams (1797–1801), Hamilton served as Inspector General and Senior Officer of the United States Army, holding the rank of major general. He held this position from December 14, 1799, to June 15, 1800, succeeding George Washington as the army's senior officer following Washington's death.

Hamilton's relationship with Adams deteriorated as the two men clashed over policy and political strategy. In the presidential election of 1800, Hamilton opposed Adams's re-election bid, publishing a lengthy pamphlet criticizing Adams's character and competence — a move that divided the Federalist Party and contributed to Adams's defeat. When the electoral college produced a tie between Jefferson and Aaron Burr, Hamilton used his influence to support Jefferson, whom he viewed as the lesser of two threats to the republic, helping to secure Jefferson's election.

Personal Life

Hamilton married Elizabeth Schuyler in 1780. Elizabeth was a member of the prominent Schuyler family of New York; her father, Philip Schuyler, was a Continental Army general and later a United States senator. The couple had eight children together.

In 1797, Hamilton became embroiled in a public scandal when he acknowledged an extramarital affair with Maria Reynolds, a married woman, in a published pamphlet known as the Reynolds Pamphlet. Hamilton admitted to the affair to counter charges that he had been involved in financial corruption with Maria's husband, James Reynolds. The publication of the pamphlet was politically damaging but served to clear Hamilton's name of the more serious allegation of official misconduct.

On July 11, 1804, Hamilton was fatally wounded in a duel with Vice President Aaron Burr at Weehawken, New Jersey. The duel stemmed from longstanding personal and political animosity between the two men, exacerbated by Hamilton's efforts to block Burr's political ambitions, including his opposition to Burr's candidacy for governor of New York earlier that year. Hamilton died the following day, July 12, 1804, at the home of William Bayard Jr. in Greenwich Village, New York City. He was buried at Trinity Church Cemetery in Lower Manhattan.

Recognition

Hamilton's image has appeared on the United States ten-dollar bill since 1928, making him one of only two non-presidents featured on currently circulating U.S. paper currency (the other being Benjamin Franklin).

Columbia University, Hamilton's alma mater, awards the annual Alexander Hamilton Award to distinguished alumni, with the 77th dinner held in November 2025 honoring Andrew F. Barth.

The Alexander Hamilton Society, a national organization focused on American foreign, economic, and national security policy, operates chapters at universities across the United States. In December 2025, a new chapter was launched at the University of Connecticut.

In 2015, the Broadway musical Hamilton, written by Lin-Manuel Miranda and based on Ron Chernow's 2004 biography, premiered to widespread critical and commercial success. The musical dramatized Hamilton's life using hip-hop, R&B, and traditional show tunes, and it won 11 Tony Awards, including Best Musical, in 2016. The production brought Hamilton's biography to a broad popular audience and generated renewed interest in his contributions to American history.

Numerous schools, military installations, and public institutions bear Hamilton's name. The U.S. Coast Guard credits Hamilton as its founder, recognizing his 1790 establishment of the Revenue Cutter Service as the origin of the service.

Legacy

Alexander Hamilton's influence on the political, economic, and legal foundations of the United States has been assessed by historians as among the most significant of any Founding Father. His vision of a strong federal government, an independent judiciary, a national financial system, and a diversified industrial economy became the framework upon which much of American governance and economic policy was built in the centuries following his death.

His articulation of the doctrine of implied powers in his defense of the First Bank of the United States established a principle of constitutional interpretation that expanded the scope of federal authority and was affirmed by Chief Justice John Marshall in McCulloch v. Maryland (1819). His financial system — including federal assumption of state debts, the national bank, and the tariff structure — stabilized the credit of the young republic and established the conditions for economic growth.

The Federalist Papers remain among the most frequently cited primary sources in American constitutional law. Scholars and jurists continue to reference Hamilton's essays, particularly Federalist No. 78 on judicial review and Federalist No. 70 on the energetic executive, in debates over constitutional interpretation.

Hamilton's role in founding the Revenue Cutter Service established the basis for what became the United States Coast Guard, one of the six armed services of the United States. The Coast Guard has continued to acknowledge Hamilton's founding role, with official publications in 2025 examining his vision for the service as a military institution.

Hamilton's legacy has continued to generate scholarly and public discussion into the 21st century. The Bush Institute-SMU Economic Growth Initiative, in its 2026 series of essays marking America's 250th anniversary, identified Hamilton's economic contributions as among the milestone events that shaped the American economy. His life story — from impoverished, illegitimate Caribbean orphan to architect of a nation's financial system — has served as a potent symbol in American discussions about immigration, social mobility, and the possibilities of the American republic.