John Marshall

John Marshall
Born	John Marshall 24 9, 1755
Birthplace	Germantown, Colony of Virginia, British America
Died	Template:Death date and age Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Nationality	American
Occupation	Jurist, statesman, soldier
Known for	Longest-serving Chief Justice of the United States; establishing the principle of judicial review in Marbury v. Madison
Education	College of William & Mary
Spouse(s)	Mary Willis Ambler
Children	10
Awards	Longest-serving Chief Justice of the United States

John Marshall (September 24, 1755 – July 6, 1835) was an American statesman, jurist, and Founding Father who served as the fourth Chief Justice of the United States from 1801 until his death in 1835. His thirty-four-year tenure on the bench remains the longest of any Chief Justice, and the fourth-longest of any justice in the history of the United States Supreme Court. Before his appointment to the Court, Marshall served as both the United States Secretary of State under President John Adams and as a member of the United States House of Representatives from Virginia, making him one of the few Americans in history to have held a constitutional office in all three branches of the federal government. Marshall's influence on American constitutional law was profound: through landmark decisions such as Marbury v. Madison (1803), McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), and Gibbons v. Ogden (1824), he helped define the relationship between the federal government and the states, affirmed the supremacy of the Constitution, and cemented the judiciary as an independent and co-equal branch of government. A veteran of the American Revolutionary War, a skilled lawyer, and a leader of the Federalist Party, Marshall shaped the constitutional framework of the young republic in ways that have endured for more than two centuries.

Early Life

John Marshall was born on September 24, 1755, in Germantown, a small community in the frontier region of the Colony of Virginia in British America. He was the eldest of fifteen children born to Thomas Marshall and Mary Randolph Keith. His father, Thomas Marshall, was a prominent figure in the Virginia frontier, serving as a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses and later as a colonel in the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War. The elder Marshall was a friend and associate of George Washington, a connection that would shape the younger Marshall's political outlook and career.

Growing up on the Virginia frontier, Marshall received much of his early education at home, primarily from his father and, for a brief period, from a tutor. He had access to a modest but formative collection of books, including works of English literature, history, and law. His father introduced him to William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England, a foundational legal text that would inform Marshall's later jurisprudence. The conditions of frontier life shaped Marshall's character — he was known throughout his life for his unpretentious manner, physical hardiness, and gregarious personality.

When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1775, the nineteen-year-old Marshall joined the Continental Army as a lieutenant in the Culpeper Minutemen. He served in numerous engagements, including the Battle of Brandywine, the Battle of Germantown, and the Battle of Monmouth. Marshall also endured the harsh winter encampment at Valley Forge during 1777–1778, an experience that deepened his commitment to the cause of a strong national union. He rose to the rank of captain during his service, which lasted from 1775 to 1780. Marshall's wartime experiences, particularly the hardships caused by the weakness of the Continental Congress and the lack of coordinated support from the individual states, left a lasting impression on him and contributed to his lifelong advocacy for a vigorous federal government.

Education

During the later stages of the Revolutionary War, Marshall pursued formal legal studies. In 1780, he attended lectures on law delivered by George Wythe at the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia. Wythe, a signer of the Declaration of Independence and one of the first law professors in the United States, was a formative influence on Marshall's legal thinking. Marshall's attendance at William & Mary was relatively brief — spanning only a few months — but the instruction he received from Wythe provided a rigorous grounding in legal principles and constitutional theory.

Following his studies, Marshall was admitted to the Virginia state bar in 1780 and began practicing law. His legal education, while less extensive than that of some contemporaries who studied at the Inns of Court in London, was considered thorough by the standards of the Virginia bar. Marshall's practical intelligence and persuasive skills as an advocate quickly distinguished him among his peers.

Career

Early Legal and Political Career

After his admission to the bar, Marshall established a successful law practice, first in Fauquier County and then in Richmond, Virginia, which became his permanent home. Richmond at the time was the state capital and the center of Virginia's legal and political life. Marshall quickly gained a reputation as one of the most capable attorneys in the state, known for his ability to distill complex legal arguments into clear and compelling reasoning.

Marshall entered public service early. He won election to the Virginia House of Delegates, where he served intermittently during the 1780s. During this period, he became a strong proponent of the proposed United States Constitution. At the Virginia Ratifying Convention of 1788, Marshall played a significant role in arguing for ratification, debating against prominent opponents such as Patrick Henry and George Mason. Marshall's arguments at the convention focused on the necessity of a strong federal judiciary and the protections afforded by the Constitution's structure of separated powers.

Marshall also served briefly as Acting Attorney General of Virginia from October 1794 to March 1795, during which time he filled in for James Innes. Throughout the 1790s, Marshall turned down several offers of federal appointment from President Washington and later from President Adams, including positions as Attorney General of the United States and minister to France. He preferred to remain in Virginia, where he maintained a thriving legal practice and continued to participate in state politics.

The XYZ Affair and Congressional Service

In 1797, at the request of President John Adams, Marshall agreed to serve as one of three American envoys dispatched to France to negotiate an end to French attacks on American shipping. The other members of the diplomatic commission were Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and Elbridge Gerry. Upon their arrival in Paris, agents of the French government — later designated as "X," "Y," and "Z" in official dispatches — demanded that the United States pay substantial bribes and provide a loan to France as preconditions for opening negotiations.

Marshall and Pinckney refused the demands, and the mission collapsed. When the details of the affair were published in the United States in 1798, public outrage was directed at France, and Marshall returned home as a popular figure. The XYZ Affair bolstered the standing of the Federalist Party and made Marshall a nationally recognized statesman. His conduct during the affair earned him praise for his patriotism and diplomatic firmness.

Following his return, Marshall acceded to President Adams's urging and ran for the United States House of Representatives from Virginia. He was elected in 1799 and served a single term, from March 5, 1799, to June 6, 1800. In Congress, Marshall emerged as a leader of the Federalist caucus. He defended the Adams administration's foreign policy and argued against the more extreme measures favored by some Federalists, including the Alien and Sedition Acts. His moderate stance and legal acumen earned him respect from both sides of the political aisle.

Secretary of State

In 1800, following a major shake-up within his cabinet, President Adams appointed Marshall as United States Secretary of State, a position he assumed on June 13, 1800. Marshall served as Secretary of State during a turbulent period in American foreign policy, managing relations with both France and Great Britain while the young republic sought to maintain its neutrality in the Napoleonic Wars. He became one of Adams's most trusted advisors, and his tenure at the State Department, though brief — lasting until March 4, 1801 — was marked by competence and loyalty to the president.

During the final weeks of the Adams administration, Marshall simultaneously served as both Secretary of State and Chief Justice of the United States, after his appointment to the latter position in January 1801. This dual service, while unusual, reflected the extraordinary political circumstances of the transition from the Adams to the Jefferson administration.

Chief Justice of the United States

On January 20, 1801, President Adams nominated John Marshall to serve as the fourth Chief Justice of the United States, following the resignation of Oliver Ellsworth. The Senate confirmed Marshall on January 27, 1801, and he took his seat on February 4, 1801. He would serve in this capacity for the remaining thirty-four years of his life, making him the longest-serving Chief Justice in American history.

Marshall's appointment came at a moment of intense political transition. The Federalist Party had lost the presidency to Thomas Jefferson and his Democratic-Republican Party in the election of 1800. By placing Marshall on the Court, Adams ensured that Federalist principles — particularly the idea of a strong federal government and an independent judiciary — would continue to exert influence through the judicial branch even as the other branches of government shifted to Democratic-Republican control.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

The first and perhaps most consequential landmark case of the Marshall Court was Marbury v. Madison, decided in 1803. The case arose from a dispute over judicial commissions that had been signed by President Adams but not delivered before the end of his term. William Marbury, one of the intended recipients, petitioned the Supreme Court for a writ of mandamus compelling Secretary of State James Madison to deliver the commission.

In his opinion for the Court, Marshall held that while Marbury had a right to his commission, the provision of the Judiciary Act of 1789 that purported to grant the Supreme Court original jurisdiction to issue such writs was unconstitutional because it expanded the Court's original jurisdiction beyond what was specified in Article III of the Constitution. The Court therefore lacked the authority to grant the relief Marbury sought.

By this reasoning, Marshall established the principle of judicial review — the power of federal courts to review acts of Congress and declare them void if they conflict with the Constitution. This principle, while debated in its origins, became a cornerstone of American constitutional law. Scholars have noted that the concept of judicial review had antecedents in English common law and in the practice of state courts prior to 1803, and that Marshall's opinion synthesized and formalized rather than created the doctrine. The decision also demonstrated Marshall's political dexterity: by declining to issue the writ, he avoided a direct confrontation with the Jefferson administration, which might have ignored the Court's order, thereby undermining judicial authority.

Fletcher v. Peck (1810) and Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819)

In Fletcher v. Peck (1810), the Marshall Court ruled for the first time that a state law was unconstitutional. The case involved the Yazoo land scandal in Georgia, where the state legislature had granted vast tracts of land to private purchasers, many of whom had bribed legislators. A subsequent legislature attempted to rescind the grants. Marshall held that the original land grants constituted contracts protected by the Contract Clause of the Constitution, and that a state could not pass legislation impairing the obligation of contracts.

In Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819), the Court applied similar reasoning to hold that a corporate charter issued by the British Crown to Dartmouth College was a contract that the state of New Hampshire could not unilaterally alter. This decision had significant implications for the development of American corporate law, protecting private corporations from state legislative interference.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Among the most important decisions of the Marshall Court was McCulloch v. Maryland (1819). The case concerned the constitutionality of the Second Bank of the United States and the power of the state of Maryland to tax it. Marshall, writing for a unanimous Court, held that Congress possessed implied powers under the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution to charter a national bank, even though such a power was not explicitly enumerated in the text of the Constitution. He further held that Maryland could not tax a federal instrumentality, articulating the principle that "the power to tax involves the power to destroy."

The decision in McCulloch was a sweeping affirmation of federal supremacy and a broad reading of congressional power. It established foundational principles regarding the relationship between the federal and state governments that remain central to American constitutional law.

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) and the Commerce Clause

In Gibbons v. Ogden (1824), Marshall addressed the scope of Congress's power to regulate interstate commerce under the Commerce Clause. The case involved a dispute over steamboat navigation rights on waterways between New York and New Jersey. Marshall held that the Commerce Clause granted Congress broad authority to regulate interstate commerce, including navigation, and that a federal coasting license preempted New York's grant of a monopoly on steamboat operations in its waters.

The decision was significant for its expansive interpretation of the Commerce Clause, which would become one of the most frequently invoked provisions of the Constitution in subsequent centuries as Congress exercised increasing regulatory power over the national economy.

Cohens v. Virginia (1821) and Judicial Supremacy

In Cohens v. Virginia (1821), the Marshall Court affirmed the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court over state court decisions involving questions of federal law. The state of Virginia argued that the Eleventh Amendment barred the Court from hearing appeals from state courts in cases to which a state was a party. Marshall rejected this argument, holding that the Supreme Court's appellate jurisdiction extended to all cases arising under the Constitution, federal law, or treaties, regardless of whether a state was a party.

Judicial Leadership and Institutional Reforms

Beyond individual cases, Marshall's lasting contribution to the Court was institutional. Before his tenure, the justices typically issued seriatim opinions — individual opinions from each justice, with no single opinion representing the Court's collective view. Marshall moved the Court toward the practice of issuing a single majority opinion, usually written by himself, that articulated a clear and unified legal rule. This practice greatly enhanced the authority and clarity of the Court's pronouncements.

Marshall wrote over 500 opinions during his tenure, a remarkable output that reflected both his dominance within the Court and his extraordinary work ethic. He authored the opinion of the Court in nearly every significant constitutional case heard during his thirty-four years as Chief Justice.

Personal Life

On January 3, 1783, John Marshall married Mary Willis Ambler, known as "Polly," the daughter of the Virginia state treasurer Jacquelin Ambler. The couple had ten children, though several died in infancy or childhood. Two of their sons, Thomas and Edward, survived to adulthood and are noted in family records.

Marshall made his home in Richmond, Virginia, where he built a residence that still stands and is preserved as a historic site. He was known for his modest and approachable demeanor, often dressing simply and participating in social activities such as the Richmond Quoits Club. Contemporaries frequently remarked on the contrast between Marshall's unassuming manner and the enormous power and influence he wielded as Chief Justice.

Mary Marshall suffered from chronic illness for much of her life, and Marshall was devoted to her care. She died on December 25, 1831. Marshall himself experienced declining health in his later years. He traveled to Philadelphia in 1835 to seek medical treatment and died there on July 6, 1835, at the age of seventy-nine. According to tradition, the Liberty Bell cracked while tolling in Marshall's honor, though the historical accuracy of this account is debated.

Recognition

Marshall's contributions to American law and governance have been recognized extensively in the centuries following his death. He is commemorated in the naming of numerous institutions, including the Marshall-Wythe School of Law at the College of William & Mary, one of the oldest law schools in the United States. Schools across the country bear his name, including John Marshall High School in Richmond, Virginia, and others in several states.

Marshall's likeness has appeared on United States currency and postage stamps. His portrait was featured on a $500 denomination Federal Reserve Note.

The John Marshall House in Richmond, Virginia, where Marshall lived from 1790 until his death, is preserved as a National Historic Landmark and is open to the public as a museum operated by Preservation Virginia. The National Park Service has included the home in its educational programs as a site that illustrates the life and times of the early American republic.

Marshall's papers and correspondence have been collected and published in scholarly editions, most notably The Papers of John Marshall, a multi-volume project supported by the University of Virginia Press.

Legacy

John Marshall's legacy rests primarily on his transformation of the Supreme Court from a relatively weak institution into a co-equal branch of the federal government. When he assumed the Chief Justiceship in 1801, the Court had little prestige and uncertain authority; by the time of his death in 1835, it had become the final arbiter of constitutional questions and a powerful check on both the legislative and executive branches.

The principle of judicial review, as articulated in Marbury v. Madison, has been described as one of the foundational doctrines of American constitutional governance. While scholars have debated whether Marshall invented the doctrine or merely formalized existing practice, the practical effect of the decision was to establish a framework that has governed the relationship between the judiciary and the other branches of government for more than two centuries. As a recent analysis noted, the judicial power and duty to invalidate unconstitutional laws had antecedents in earlier legal thought, but Marshall's opinion gave the principle its definitive expression in American law.

Marshall's broad interpretation of federal power — particularly through the Necessary and Proper Clause and the Commerce Clause — laid the constitutional groundwork for the expansion of federal authority that characterized subsequent periods of American history. His decisions in McCulloch v. Maryland and Gibbons v. Ogden established principles that remain operative in contemporary constitutional jurisprudence.

His institutional reforms, particularly the shift from seriatim to majority opinions, fundamentally altered the way the Supreme Court communicates its decisions and exercises its authority. This practice, which Marshall championed, remains the standard operating procedure of the Court.

Albert Beveridge's multi-volume biography, The Life of John Marshall (1916–1919), remains a major scholarly treatment of Marshall's life and times, and numerous subsequent works have examined his jurisprudence and its lasting impact on American law and government.