Kary Mullis

Kary Mullis
Mullis in 2006
Kary Mullis
Born	Kary Banks Mullis 28 12, 1944
Birthplace	Lenoir, North Carolina, U.S.
Died	Template:Death date and age Newport Beach, California, U.S.
Nationality	American
Occupation	Biochemist
Known for	Invention of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
Education	University of California, Berkeley (PhD)
Awards	Robert Koch Prize (1992), Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1993), Japan Prize (1993)
Website	[[karymullis.com karymullis.com] Official site]

Kary Banks Mullis (December 28, 1944 – August 7, 2019) was an American biochemist who invented the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a technique that fundamentally transformed the fields of molecular biology, genetics, forensic science, and medicine. For this achievement, Mullis shared the 1993 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Michael Smith and received the Japan Prize in the same year. PCR allowed scientists to amplify specific segments of DNA billions of times over, making it possible to analyze minute quantities of genetic material. The New York Times described the technique as "highly original and significant, virtually dividing biology into the two epochs of before PCR and after PCR." Beyond its laboratory applications, PCR became an indispensable tool in criminal investigations, paternity testing, the diagnosis of infectious diseases, and — decades after its invention — a cornerstone of worldwide COVID-19 testing. Mullis was also a figure of considerable controversy: he publicly questioned the link between HIV and AIDS, downplayed the human role in climate change, and expressed belief in astrology, positions that drew widespread criticism from the scientific community and were cited as an example of "Nobel disease."

Early Life

Kary Banks Mullis was born on December 28, 1944, in Lenoir, North Carolina, a small town in the foothills of the Blue Ridge Mountains. He grew up in Columbia, South Carolina, where he developed an early interest in science and chemistry. As a child and adolescent, Mullis was drawn to experimentation, conducting chemistry experiments at home and displaying the intellectual curiosity that would later define his scientific career. His upbringing in the rural American South left an imprint on his personality; in later years, Mullis frequently presented himself as an outsider to the academic establishment, cultivating an image as an independent thinker unbeholden to conventional scientific norms.

Mullis's early fascination with chemistry extended to hands-on experimentation that sometimes pushed boundaries. He later acknowledged having synthesized lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) during his younger years, an activity he discussed openly in interviews and in his autobiography. This willingness to discuss illicit drug use publicly was characteristic of Mullis's broader tendency toward candor and provocation, traits that both endeared him to some audiences and alienated many of his scientific peers.

Education

Mullis attended the Georgia Institute of Technology, where he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in chemistry. He subsequently enrolled at the University of California, Berkeley, where he pursued graduate studies in biochemistry. At Berkeley, he worked under the supervision of J. B. Neilands, completing his doctoral dissertation titled "Schizokinen: structure and synthetic work" in 1973. His doctoral research focused on the iron-transport compound schizokinen, a siderophore produced by certain bacteria. While the subject of his dissertation was far removed from the DNA amplification work for which he would later become famous, his training at Berkeley provided him with a strong foundation in biochemistry and molecular biology that proved essential to his later work.

After completing his PhD, Mullis undertook postdoctoral work, though he did not immediately settle into a conventional academic career path. He held various positions before eventually joining the biotechnology industry in the early 1980s, a transition that would prove pivotal.

Career

Cetus Corporation and the Invention of PCR

In the early 1980s, Mullis joined Cetus Corporation, a biotechnology company based in Emeryville, California. At Cetus, he worked as a DNA chemist, synthesizing oligonucleotides for use in various molecular biology applications. It was during his time at Cetus that Mullis conceived the idea for the polymerase chain reaction.

According to Mullis's own account — which he recounted frequently in interviews and public lectures — the idea for PCR came to him during a nighttime drive along Highway 128 in northern California in the spring of 1983. He realized that by using two short DNA primers flanking a region of interest, along with a DNA polymerase enzyme and repeated cycles of heating and cooling, it would be possible to exponentially amplify a specific segment of DNA. Each cycle would double the number of target DNA copies, meaning that after dozens of cycles, a single molecule of DNA could be replicated billions of times.

The concept was elegantly simple in principle but required considerable experimental refinement. Early experiments used the Klenow fragment of Escherichia coli DNA polymerase I, which was destroyed by the high temperatures needed to denature DNA strands and had to be replenished after each heating cycle. A significant practical advance came with the use of Taq polymerase, a heat-stable DNA polymerase derived from the thermophilic bacterium Thermus aquaticus, which could withstand the repeated heating cycles and eliminated the need to add fresh enzyme at each step. This refinement made PCR a practical, automatable technique.

Mullis published his first paper on PCR in 1985, and the technique rapidly gained acceptance across the scientific community. Cetus Corporation patented the technology, and it was later sold to Hoffmann-La Roche for $300 million, one of the largest sums ever paid for a patent at the time. Mullis himself reportedly received a bonus of $10,000 from Cetus for the invention — a sum that became a frequently cited point of contention given the enormous commercial value of the technology.

Impact of PCR

The polymerase chain reaction transformed virtually every branch of the biological and medical sciences. In molecular biology and genetics, PCR enabled the Human Genome Project, the cloning and sequencing of genes, the study of gene expression, and the detection of genetic mutations associated with hereditary diseases. In medicine, PCR-based diagnostic tests became the standard for detecting infectious agents including HIV, hepatitis C, tuberculosis, and many other pathogens. The technique's sensitivity — capable of detecting a single molecule of target DNA — made it far superior to previous diagnostic methods for many applications.

In forensic science, PCR revolutionized the analysis of biological evidence. DNA profiling using PCR allowed criminal investigators to identify suspects from trace amounts of biological material — a drop of blood, a single hair follicle, or a saliva stain — with extraordinary precision. The technique also played a role in exonerating wrongly convicted individuals through the Innocence Project and similar efforts. In this capacity, PCR had profound implications for the criminal justice system, both in securing convictions and in overturning unjust ones.

In paleontology and evolutionary biology, PCR made it possible to amplify and study ancient DNA from fossils and preserved specimens, opening entirely new fields of inquiry. In agriculture, the technique facilitated the development of genetically modified organisms and the detection of pathogens in food supplies.

Decades after its invention, PCR achieved its widest public recognition during the COVID-19 pandemic, when RT-PCR tests became the global standard for diagnosing SARS-CoV-2 infections. Billions of PCR tests were administered worldwide, making the technique a household term.

Mullis also contributed to the development of the TaqMan probe system, a method for real-time quantitative PCR that further expanded the technique's diagnostic capabilities.

Later Career

Following his departure from Cetus Corporation, Mullis served as a consultant and held positions at several organizations. He worked at Xytronyx, Inc., a company based in San Diego, and served as a consultant to various biotechnology and pharmaceutical firms. He was also a distinguished lecturer, giving talks at scientific conferences, universities, and public events around the world.

Mullis published an autobiography, Dancing Naked in the Mind Field (1998), in which he discussed his scientific work, personal philosophy, and various unconventional beliefs. The book received mixed reviews: some praised its lively and irreverent tone, while others criticized its promotion of scientifically unfounded claims.

He was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 1998 for his invention of PCR.

Controversial Views

Throughout his post-Nobel career, Mullis became increasingly known for expressing views that placed him at odds with the scientific mainstream. His most prominent and consequential contrarian position was his denial that HIV causes AIDS. Mullis argued that the scientific evidence linking HIV to AIDS was insufficient, aligning himself with a small group of AIDS denialists including Peter Duesberg. This stance was rejected by the overwhelming consensus of the medical and scientific community, which had established through extensive research that HIV is the causative agent of AIDS. Public health officials and AIDS researchers expressed concern that Mullis's Nobel Prize lent unwarranted credibility to AIDS denialism, potentially undermining public health efforts.

Mullis also publicly questioned the scientific consensus on anthropogenic climate change, expressing doubt that human activities were significantly contributing to global warming. He characterized the evidence for human-caused climate change as overstated and was skeptical of the models used by climate scientists.

In addition to these positions, Mullis professed belief in astrology and reported a personal experience involving what he described as an encounter with a glowing green raccoon, which he speculated might have been an extraterrestrial contact. He discussed these experiences openly, contributing to his reputation as an eccentric figure.

Mullis's controversial positions were cited by Skeptical Inquirer magazine as an example of "Nobel disease," a term used to describe the phenomenon in which Nobel laureates endorse or promote ideas outside their area of expertise that lack scientific support.

His defenders argued that Mullis's unconventional thinking was inseparable from the creative independence that had led to his greatest scientific achievement. His critics countered that his public platform and Nobel credentials made his promotion of unsupported claims irresponsible and potentially harmful.

Personal Life

Mullis was married multiple times. He was known for his colorful personality, his love of surfing, and his openness about recreational drug use, including his acknowledged synthesis and use of LSD. He lived for many years in the La Jolla area of San Diego and later in Newport Beach, California.

In his autobiography and in numerous interviews, Mullis presented himself as a freethinking individualist who rejected authority and convention. He was described by colleagues and journalists in terms that ranged from "brilliant" and "creative" to "difficult" and "outrageous." The California Magazine profile published by the Cal Alumni Association after his death described him as "Berkeley's Most Controversial Nobel Laureate" and explored the tension between his scientific contributions and his public persona.

Mullis died on August 7, 2019, at his home in Newport Beach, California, from pneumonia. He was 74 years old.

Recognition

Mullis received numerous awards and honors for his invention of PCR, reflecting the technique's profound impact on science and technology.

In 1992, he received the Robert Koch Prize, one of the most prestigious awards in the biomedical sciences, recognizing his contributions to microbiology and infectious disease research.

In 1993, Mullis was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, which he shared with Michael Smith. The Nobel committee recognized Mullis "for his invention of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method," while Smith was honored for his contributions to the development of oligonucleotide-based, site-directed mutagenesis.

Also in 1993, Mullis received the Japan Prize, awarded by the Japan Prize Foundation for original and outstanding achievements in science and technology.

Mullis was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 1998.

He also received the John Scott Award, given by the city of Philadelphia to recognize individuals whose inventions have contributed to the "comfort, welfare and happiness" of humankind.

Legacy

The polymerase chain reaction remains one of the most consequential inventions in the history of the biological sciences. It is a foundational technique in virtually every molecular biology laboratory in the world and has enabled advances in fields as diverse as genomics, oncology, infectious disease diagnostics, forensic science, archaeology, and evolutionary biology.

The COVID-19 pandemic brought PCR to unprecedented public attention, as RT-PCR testing became the primary method for diagnosing SARS-CoV-2 infections worldwide. The scale of PCR testing during the pandemic — billions of tests administered across every continent — underscored the technique's versatility and the enduring significance of Mullis's invention, which had occurred nearly four decades earlier.

Within the scientific community, assessments of Mullis's legacy are complex. His invention of PCR is universally acknowledged as a landmark achievement, and few individual contributions to twentieth-century science have had a broader practical impact. At the same time, his public advocacy of AIDS denialism and other scientifically unfounded positions remains a source of discomfort and criticism. The Cal Alumni Association's posthumous profile noted the difficulty of reconciling the two aspects of his legacy, observing that Mullis "revolutionized biology and pissed everyone off."

The Injustice Watch obituary highlighted the impact of PCR on the criminal justice system, noting that the technique had been instrumental in both convicting the guilty and exonerating the innocent, and that Mullis's invention had, in this way, contributed to the cause of justice even though he was "neither a lawyer nor an activist."

Mullis's career and public persona have also been examined as a case study in the relationship between scientific creativity and iconoclasm. Some commentators have argued that the same independent, authority-questioning temperament that enabled Mullis to conceive of PCR also predisposed him to reject scientific consensus in other areas. Others have drawn sharper distinctions, maintaining that the rigorous experimental work behind PCR bore little resemblance to his later unsupported public pronouncements.

Regardless of the debates surrounding his personal views, the technique Mullis invented continues to shape science, medicine, and society in fundamental ways. PCR remains an essential tool in laboratories worldwide, and its applications continue to expand as new variants of the technology are developed.