John Hay

John Hay
Born	John Milton Hay 8 10, 1838
Birthplace	Salem, Indiana, United States
Died	Template:Death date and age Newbury, New Hampshire, United States
Nationality	American
Occupation	Statesman, diplomat, author, poet
Known for	Open Door Policy, Panama Canal negotiations, Lincoln biography
Education	Brown University (A.B., 1858)
Spouse(s)	Clara Louise Stone
Awards	Honorary degrees from Brown University and Western Reserve University

John Milton Hay (October 8, 1838 – July 1, 1905) was an American statesman, diplomat, author, and poet whose public career spanned nearly half a century and intersected with some of the most consequential events in United States history. As a young man, he served as one of President Abraham Lincoln's private secretaries throughout the Civil War, standing at the dying president's bedside after Lincoln was shot at Ford's Theatre in April 1865. Hay went on to serve in diplomatic posts across Europe, work as a journalist and editorial writer for the New-York Tribune, and eventually rise to the position of United States Secretary of State under Presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt. In that role, he negotiated the Open Door Policy with respect to China and brokered the treaties that cleared the path for the construction of the Panama Canal. Beyond politics, Hay was a literary figure of note: he co-authored, with John George Nicolay, a monumental ten-volume biography of Abraham Lincoln, and he published poetry and fiction that earned him recognition in American letters. His life traced an arc from the frontier communities of the antebellum Midwest to the highest corridors of power in Washington and the capitals of Europe, making him one of the most prominent American public figures of the Gilded Age and the early twentieth century.

Early Life

John Milton Hay was born on October 8, 1838, in Salem, Indiana, the third son of Dr. Charles Hay and Helen Leonard Hay. His family had roots in the anti-slavery movement, and his father, a physician, held views that placed the family at odds with the institution of slavery prevalent in the border regions of the antebellum United States. When Hay was still a young child, the family relocated to Warsaw, Illinois, a small town on the Mississippi River in Hancock County. It was in this rural Illinois setting that Hay spent most of his childhood.

From an early age, Hay demonstrated intellectual ability that set him apart from his peers. He was an avid reader with a facility for languages and composition. His family, recognizing his potential, made the decision to send him east for a university education — an unusual step for a family from a small Illinois town at the time. Hay's uncle, Milton Hay, a lawyer in Springfield, Illinois, played a significant role in encouraging and supporting the young man's education and early career.

Hay's upbringing in the Mississippi River town of Warsaw exposed him to the political and social currents of the era, including the fierce debates over slavery that would soon plunge the nation into civil war. The anti-slavery convictions of his family shaped his political outlook from boyhood and would later inform his devotion to Abraham Lincoln and the Union cause.

Education

Hay enrolled at Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island, where he proved to be an accomplished student. He excelled in languages, literature, and rhetoric, and he was active in the literary and social life of the university. He was elected class poet and delivered a poem at his commencement exercises. Hay graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1858.

After graduating from Brown, Hay returned to Illinois and began reading law in the office of his uncle, Milton Hay, in Springfield. The office was adjacent to that of Abraham Lincoln, then a prominent attorney and rising political figure in the Republican Party. This proximity brought Hay into Lincoln's orbit at a critical moment in American history, as the nation moved toward the presidential election of 1860.

Career

Secretary to Abraham Lincoln

Hay's legal studies were soon overtaken by the political events of 1860. He became involved in Lincoln's presidential campaign and, following Lincoln's election, was invited to serve as one of the president-elect's two private secretaries, alongside John George Nicolay. Hay was only twenty-two years old when he arrived at the White House in March 1861, on the eve of the Civil War.

During the four years of Lincoln's presidency and the Civil War, Hay served as a close aide and confidant to the president. His duties ranged from handling correspondence and managing access to the president to serving as an informal liaison with Congress, the press, and military officials. Hay lived in the White House and had daily contact with Lincoln, gaining an intimate perspective on the president's leadership during the most perilous period in the nation's history.

Hay also undertook special assignments during the war. He was sent on missions to various military commands and, at times, held a nominal military rank. He accompanied Lincoln on various travels and was present for many of the key moments of the administration, including the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation and Lincoln's delivery of the Gettysburg Address.

On the night of April 14, 1865, when Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth at Ford's Theatre, Hay rushed to the Petersen House across the street, where the mortally wounded president was carried. Hay stood vigil at Lincoln's deathbed through the night and was present when Lincoln died the following morning. The experience profoundly affected Hay and helped shape his lifelong devotion to Lincoln's memory and legacy.

Diplomatic Posts in Europe

Following Lincoln's assassination, Hay entered the diplomatic service. He served as a secretary of legation at the United States embassy in Paris, beginning a period of several years spent at diplomatic posts in Europe. He subsequently held positions in Vienna and Madrid, gaining experience in international affairs and developing the diplomatic skills that would later define his career at the highest levels of government.

During his time in Europe, Hay immersed himself in the political and cultural life of the continent. He became fluent in French and developed a broad network of contacts among European diplomats and intellectuals. His years abroad gave him a cosmopolitan perspective that distinguished him from many of his American contemporaries in public life.

Journalism and Literary Career

Upon returning to the United States in the early 1870s, Hay embarked on a career in journalism. He joined the editorial staff of the New-York Tribune, then one of the most influential newspapers in the country, under the editorship of Horace Greeley and later Whitelaw Reid. Hay served as an editorial writer and contributed commentary on politics, foreign affairs, and culture. His work at the Tribune kept him connected to Republican Party politics and national affairs.

Hay was also active as a literary figure throughout his life. He published poetry, fiction, and essays. Among his best-known literary works were Pike County Ballads (1871), a collection of dialect poems depicting life on the American frontier, and The Bread-Winners (1884), a novel published anonymously that dealt with themes of labor unrest and class conflict. Pike County Ballads earned Hay a reputation as a distinctive voice in American verse, and the poems were praised for their vivid depiction of Western American life.

Hay's most significant literary achievement, however, was the monumental biography of Abraham Lincoln that he co-authored with John George Nicolay. Titled Abraham Lincoln: A History, the work was published in ten volumes between 1890 and was the product of more than fifteen years of research and writing. Drawing on their unique access to Lincoln's papers and their personal recollections of the Lincoln White House, Hay and Nicolay produced a comprehensive account that shaped Lincoln's historical image for decades. The biography was first serialized in The Century Magazine before its publication in book form and attracted wide readership and critical attention.

Assistant Secretary of State

Hay's political connections and diplomatic experience led to his appointment as Assistant Secretary of State in 1879, during the administration of President Rutherford B. Hayes. He served in this capacity until 1881, gaining further experience in the conduct of American foreign policy and in the workings of the State Department. The position reinforced Hay's standing within the Republican Party and among Washington's political establishment.

Private Life and the Cleveland Years

In 1874, Hay married Clara Louise Stone, the daughter of Amasa Stone, a wealthy Cleveland, Ohio, industrialist and financier. The marriage brought Hay into one of the richest families in Ohio, and he became a prominent figure in Cleveland society. The couple settled in Cleveland, where Hay managed business interests and remained active in Republican politics and literary affairs.

After his tenure as Assistant Secretary of State, Hay returned to the private sector. He moved between Cleveland and Washington, D.C., and maintained a prominent social presence in both cities. In Washington, Hay and his close friend Henry Adams, the historian and author, were at the center of a distinguished intellectual and social circle. Hay and Adams built adjacent houses on Lafayette Square, across from the White House, which became gathering places for politicians, diplomats, writers, and scholars.

Ambassador to the United Kingdom

In 1897, President William McKinley, of whom Hay had been a major political and financial supporter, appointed Hay as the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom. Hay's appointment was well received in both countries, and he served effectively in London during a period of improving Anglo-American relations. His tenure as ambassador coincided with the Spanish-American War of 1898, and Hay played a role in maintaining British neutrality and goodwill toward the United States during the conflict.

Hay's diplomatic skill and social grace made him popular in London, and he developed close relationships with British political leaders. His service as ambassador lasted only about a year before McKinley recalled him to Washington for an even more prominent role.

Secretary of State

In September 1898, President McKinley appointed Hay as the 37th United States Secretary of State. Hay would hold this position for nearly seven years, serving under both McKinley and, following McKinley's assassination in September 1901, under President Theodore Roosevelt. His tenure as Secretary of State was marked by several major diplomatic initiatives that reshaped America's role in the world.

The Open Door Policy

One of Hay's most significant achievements as Secretary of State was the articulation and negotiation of the Open Door Policy with respect to China. In 1899 and 1900, Hay sent a series of diplomatic notes — known as the "Open Door Notes" — to the major European powers and Japan, calling for the preservation of equal trading rights for all nations in China and for respect for China's territorial and administrative integrity. The policy was intended to prevent the partition of China into exclusive spheres of influence by the imperial powers and to maintain American commercial access to the Chinese market.

Although the responses from the other powers were ambiguous, Hay announced that all had agreed to the principles of the Open Door, thereby establishing the policy as a cornerstone of American diplomacy in East Asia. The Open Door Policy remained a defining element of United States foreign policy in the region for decades.

During the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, when a Chinese nationalist movement laid siege to foreign legations in Beijing, Hay worked to coordinate an international response while seeking to prevent the crisis from being used as a pretext for the dismemberment of China. His handling of the crisis reinforced the Open Door principles and demonstrated American engagement in great power diplomacy in Asia.

The Panama Canal Treaties

Hay's other major diplomatic legacy was clearing the legal and diplomatic path for the construction of the Panama Canal. The project required the resolution of several international obstacles.

First, the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 between the United States and the United Kingdom prohibited either country from exercising exclusive control over a Central American canal. Hay negotiated the Hay–Pauncefote Treaty with British Ambassador Sir Julian Pauncefote, signed in 1901, which superseded the earlier treaty and granted the United States the right to build and operate a canal, provided it was open to vessels of all nations on equal terms.

Hay then negotiated the Hay–Herrán Treaty with Colombia in 1903, which would have granted the United States a lease on a canal zone across the Isthmus of Panama, then a province of Colombia. However, the Colombian Senate refused to ratify the treaty, leading to a diplomatic crisis.

Following the Panamanian revolution of November 1903, in which Panama declared independence from Colombia with tacit American support, Hay quickly negotiated the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty with Philippe-Jean Bunau-Varilla, acting as Panama's representative. Signed on November 18, 1903, the treaty granted the United States control of the Canal Zone and the right to build the canal. The circumstances of Panama's independence and the speed of the treaty's negotiation generated controversy, both at the time and in subsequent historical assessments.

Relations with Theodore Roosevelt

After McKinley's assassination in September 1901, Hay continued as Secretary of State under President Theodore Roosevelt. The relationship between Hay and Roosevelt was complex. Roosevelt, who was considerably younger and more assertive in foreign policy, sometimes acted independently of his Secretary of State. Hay, whose health was declining, occasionally found Roosevelt's impulsiveness difficult to manage. Nevertheless, Roosevelt retained Hay in the position, valuing his diplomatic experience, his international reputation, and his relationships with foreign leaders.

The Philippines and Colonial Policy

Hay's tenure as Secretary of State also coincided with the American acquisition of the Philippines following the Spanish-American War. The United States' role as a colonial power in the Philippines was a subject of intense domestic debate. Hay supported the McKinley administration's policy of retaining the Philippines and oversaw the diplomatic aspects of American governance in the archipelago. This aspect of Hay's legacy has been the subject of critical reexamination, particularly with respect to the Philippine-American War and the broader implications of American imperialism in the Pacific.

Personal Life

Hay married Clara Louise Stone on February 4, 1874. Clara was the daughter of Amasa Stone, a railroad builder and industrialist in Cleveland, Ohio. The marriage connected Hay to one of Ohio's wealthiest families and provided him with financial security that allowed him to pursue public service and literary work without financial concern.

The couple had four children. Their son Adelbert Hay died in 1901 after falling from a hotel window in New Haven, Connecticut — a personal tragedy that deeply affected Hay during his years as Secretary of State.

Hay maintained a close friendship with Henry Adams throughout his adult life. The two men were neighbors on Lafayette Square in Washington and shared intellectual interests in history, literature, and politics. Adams later wrote about Hay at length in his autobiography, The Education of Henry Adams.

Hay also maintained a country estate, known as "The Fells," on the shores of Lake Sunapee in Newbury, New Hampshire. The property served as a summer retreat for the Hay family.

Hay's health declined in his final years, and he suffered from heart disease and other ailments. He died on July 1, 1905, at The Fells in Newbury, New Hampshire, at the age of sixty-six. He was buried in Cleveland, Ohio.

Recognition

During his lifetime and after his death, Hay received numerous honors. Brown University awarded him an honorary degree, and he received honorary degrees from other institutions as well.

Hay's country estate, The Fells, was later designated as a National Wildlife Refuge and is administered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service as the John Hay National Wildlife Refuge. The property is also the site of The Fells Historic Estate and Gardens, which is open to the public and preserves the Hay family's summer home and its surrounding landscape.

In Cleveland, Ohio, John Hay High School was named in his honor. The school has had a long history as a public educational institution in the city.

Camp John Hay, a former American military rest and recreation facility in Baguio City in the Philippines, was also named after Hay, reflecting his role as Secretary of State during the American colonial period in the Philippines.

Hay's literary works, including Pike County Ballads, The Bread-Winners, and Abraham Lincoln: A History, remain available through the Project Gutenberg digital library and other archival collections.

Legacy

John Hay's career placed him at the center of American public life during a transformative era. His service to Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War, followed by decades of involvement in diplomacy, journalism, literature, and statecraft, made him a figure of lasting significance in the history of American foreign policy and political culture.

As Secretary of State, Hay shaped the framework of American engagement with the wider world at the turn of the twentieth century. The Open Door Policy articulated a set of principles regarding international trade and territorial integrity in China that influenced American foreign policy in East Asia for much of the twentieth century. The Panama Canal treaties he negotiated enabled one of the largest engineering projects in history and fundamentally altered global maritime commerce and American strategic interests in the Western Hemisphere.

Hay's co-authorship of the ten-volume Abraham Lincoln: A History was a significant contribution to American historical literature. The work drew on the authors' direct experience and their access to Lincoln's private papers to produce a biography that shaped public understanding of Lincoln for generations. Historians have noted that the Hay-Nicolay biography, while sympathetic to Lincoln, set a standard for comprehensive presidential biography in the United States.

Hay's role in American imperialism, particularly with respect to the Philippines and the Panama Canal, has been the subject of critical reassessment. Scholars and commentators have examined the consequences of the policies he helped craft, including the Philippine-American War and the long-term effects of American intervention in Central America. At Brown University, Hay's legacy has been debated in the context of the university's connections to colonialism and its responsibilities to communities affected by American foreign policy in the Philippines.

Hay's life and career illustrated the interconnection of literature, journalism, and politics in nineteenth-century America. He moved between these fields with a fluency that was characteristic of the public intellectuals of his era but that became increasingly rare in the more specialized twentieth century. His personal relationships with figures such as Abraham Lincoln, Henry Adams, Theodore Roosevelt, and William McKinley placed him at the intersection of American political history and intellectual life during a period of profound national transformation.