Richard Smalley

Richard Errett Smalley
Born	6 6, 1943
Birthplace	Akron, Ohio, U.S.
Died	Template:Death date and age Houston, Texas, U.S.
Nationality	American
Occupation	Chemist, professor
Title	Gene and Norman Hackerman Professor of Chemistry, Physics, and Astronomy
Employer	Rice University
Known for	Discovery of buckminsterfullerene
Education	Princeton University (Ph.D.)
Awards	Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1996), Irving Langmuir Award, E. O. Lawrence Award

Richard Errett Smalley (June 6, 1943 – October 28, 2005) was an American chemist and professor whose co-discovery of buckminsterfullerene — a spherical molecule composed entirely of carbon atoms — reshaped the scientific understanding of carbon chemistry and helped launch the field of nanotechnology. For this discovery, Smalley shared the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Robert Curl of Rice University and Harold Kroto of the University of Sussex. A longtime member of the faculty at Rice University in Houston, Texas, where he held the Gene and Norman Hackerman Professorship of Chemistry, Physics, and Astronomy, Smalley became one of the most prominent scientific advocates for nanotechnology and its potential to address global challenges, particularly in the area of energy. He spent the final decade of his life championing research into carbon nanotubes and urging policymakers to invest in nanoscale science as a means of solving what he described as humanity's most pressing problems. Smalley died on October 28, 2005, at the age of 62, following a prolonged battle with cancer.

Early Life

Richard Errett Smalley was born on June 6, 1943, in Akron, Ohio. He grew up in a family environment that encouraged intellectual curiosity and scientific exploration. Smalley's early interest in science was nurtured during his formative years, and he developed a deep fascination with chemistry and the natural world that would guide the trajectory of his career.

Details of Smalley's childhood in the Akron area shaped his later outlook on the role of science in society. He grew up during a period of rapid technological advancement in the United States, and the postwar scientific optimism of the era had a lasting influence on his belief that scientific research could be harnessed to solve large-scale societal problems.

Smalley would later reflect on the importance of his early experiences and family influences during public addresses, including remarks delivered at his alma mater, Hope College, where he spoke about the formative role that education and mentorship played in his development as a scientist.

Education

Smalley began his undergraduate education at Hope College in Holland, Michigan, before transferring to and completing his bachelor's degree at the University of Michigan. He then pursued graduate studies at Princeton University, where he earned his Ph.D. in chemistry in 1974 under the supervision of Elliot R. Bernstein. His doctoral dissertation was titled "The Lower Electronic States of 1,3,5 Symtriazine." The rigorous training Smalley received at Princeton, particularly in spectroscopy and molecular physics, equipped him with the experimental skills and theoretical grounding that would prove essential to his later breakthroughs in carbon chemistry. After completing his doctorate, Smalley undertook postdoctoral research at the University of Chicago before joining the faculty at Rice University.

Career

Early Academic Career at Rice University

Smalley joined the faculty of Rice University in Houston, Texas, in 1976, where he would remain for the rest of his career. At Rice, he established himself as an innovative experimentalist, building and refining laser-based techniques for studying clusters of atoms and molecules. His laboratory became a center for cutting-edge research in chemical physics, and he attracted talented graduate students and postdoctoral researchers who contributed to an increasingly productive research program.

Over the course of his early years at Rice, Smalley developed sophisticated apparatus for generating and analyzing molecular clusters using supersonic beam laser vaporization techniques. This experimental methodology — which involved using intense laser pulses to vaporize solid materials and then analyzing the resulting clusters of atoms in a molecular beam — would become the key tool in his most celebrated discovery.

Smalley rose through the academic ranks at Rice, eventually being appointed the Gene and Norman Hackerman Professor of Chemistry, Physics, and Astronomy, one of the university's most prestigious endowed chairs.

Discovery of Buckminsterfullerene

The discovery that defined Smalley's career and earned him the Nobel Prize took place in September 1985 at Rice University. Harold Kroto, a professor of chemistry at the University of Sussex in England, had been studying long-chain carbon molecules detected in interstellar space and sought to replicate the conditions under which these molecules might form. Kroto contacted Robert Curl, a colleague at Rice, who suggested that Smalley's laser vaporization cluster beam apparatus could be used to simulate the carbon-rich environment of stellar atmospheres.

In a series of experiments conducted over an intense eleven-day period in September 1985, Smalley, Curl, Kroto, and their graduate students — including James Heath and Sean O'Brien — used the laser vaporization apparatus to vaporize graphite and analyze the resulting carbon clusters. The experiments revealed a remarkably stable cluster of 60 carbon atoms (C₆₀). The researchers determined that the most likely structure for this unusually stable molecule was a truncated icosahedron — a hollow, cage-like sphere composed of 12 pentagonal and 20 hexagonal faces, resembling the geodesic domes designed by architect Buckminster Fuller.

The team named the molecule buckminsterfullerene in honor of Fuller, and it quickly became known colloquially as the "buckyball." The discovery was published in the journal Nature in November 1985 and immediately attracted widespread attention from the scientific community. The identification of C₆₀ represented the discovery of an entirely new allotrope of carbon, joining diamond and graphite as the known structural forms of elemental carbon.

The discovery opened up vast new areas of research. Scientists around the world began investigating the properties of fullerenes and related carbon structures, leading to advances in materials science, organic chemistry, superconductivity, and medicine. The American Chemical Society later designated the discovery of fullerenes as a National Historic Chemical Landmark, recognizing its transformative impact on chemistry and materials science.

In 1996, Smalley, Curl, and Kroto were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for their discovery of fullerenes." The Nobel Committee cited the discovery as having opened an entirely new branch of chemistry. The Nobel medals of both Smalley and Curl were later displayed together at Rice University in a 2024 ceremony honoring the institution's scientific heritage.

Carbon Nanotubes and Nanotechnology Advocacy

Following the discovery of buckminsterfullerene, Smalley turned his research attention to carbon nanotubes — cylindrical structures related to fullerenes that exhibited extraordinary mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and thermal properties. Smalley's laboratory at Rice became a leading center for carbon nanotube research, and he played a central role in advancing the science and technology of these nanomaterials.

Smalley was instrumental in developing methods for producing single-wall carbon nanotubes in significant quantities, which was essential for exploring their potential applications. His research group made important contributions to understanding the growth mechanisms, purification, and characterization of nanotubes.

Beyond his laboratory work, Smalley emerged as one of the most visible and vocal advocates for nanotechnology in the United States. He believed that nanoscale science and engineering held the key to addressing what he called the "Top Ten Problems" facing humanity over the next fifty years. Energy was at the top of his list, and he argued forcefully that breakthroughs in nanotechnology could enable new, sustainable energy technologies capable of meeting global demand.

Smalley testified before the United States Congress on multiple occasions, urging increased federal investment in nanotechnology research. His advocacy contributed to the passage of the National Nanotechnology Initiative, a federal program that coordinated nanotechnology research across multiple government agencies and provided significant funding for the field.

In a 2004 presentation at the Materials Research Society meeting in Boston, Smalley laid out his vision for addressing the global energy challenge through nanotechnology, arguing for the development of new materials for solar energy conversion, energy storage, and electrical transmission. His proposal for a national electrical grid based on advanced materials became known as his vision for "rewiring" the energy infrastructure of the United States.

Smalley's energy advocacy was later cited by commentators and policy analysts as an important influence on the national conversation about sustainable energy and the role of advanced materials research. Teryn Norris, writing in The Huffington Post, pointed to Smalley's call for major investment in energy technology as a prescient and urgent message.

The "Fat Fingers" and "Sticky Fingers" Debate

Smalley was also notable for his participation in a prominent scientific debate about the feasibility of molecular nanotechnology as envisioned by K. Eric Drexler. Drexler had proposed the concept of molecular assemblers — nanoscale machines capable of precisely positioning individual atoms to build complex structures from the bottom up. Smalley publicly challenged this concept, arguing that it was physically impossible due to what he termed the "fat fingers" problem and the "sticky fingers" problem.

The "fat fingers" argument held that the fingers of any molecular assembler would be too large to manipulate individual atoms with the required precision in a complex molecular environment. The "sticky fingers" argument contended that atoms manipulated at the nanoscale would tend to adhere to the assembler's tools rather than being placed in their intended positions. Smalley contended that these fundamental physical limitations made Drexlerian molecular assemblers impractical.

The debate, which played out in the pages of Chemical & Engineering News and at scientific conferences, was one of the most prominent public disagreements in the emerging field of nanotechnology. While Drexler and his supporters disputed Smalley's arguments, the exchange raised important questions about the realistic boundaries and possibilities of nanoscale engineering and brought greater public attention to the scientific foundations of nanotechnology.

Institutional Leadership

In addition to his research and advocacy, Smalley played a significant institutional role at Rice University. He was instrumental in establishing the Rice Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology, which later became the Richard E. Smalley Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology. This institute served as a focal point for interdisciplinary nanotechnology research at Rice and attracted significant external funding and collaborations.

In 2015, a decade after Smalley's death, Rice University merged the Smalley Institute with the Curl Institute to form the Smalley-Curl Institute, honoring both Nobel laureates and consolidating the university's nanotechnology research programs under a single organizational umbrella.

Wade Adams, who served as director of the Richard E. Smalley Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, continued Smalley's legacy of nanotechnology advocacy and research leadership at Rice until his own death in February 2025. Adams was described as a "dynamic force" who helped pave the way for the Smalley-Curl Institute.

Personal Life

Richard Smalley was married multiple times during his life. He had at least one son. Details of his personal and family life were not extensively documented in public sources, as Smalley was known primarily for his scientific contributions and public advocacy rather than his private affairs.

Smalley was diagnosed with cancer, against which he battled for several years. Despite his illness, he continued to work, give public lectures, and advocate for nanotechnology research and energy policy until close to the end of his life. He died on October 28, 2005, at M.D. Anderson Cancer Center in Houston, Texas, at the age of 62.

Rice University held a memorial service for Smalley on November 3, 2005, at which colleagues, students, and friends gathered to remember his scientific achievements and personal qualities.

Recognition

Smalley received numerous awards and honors throughout his career in recognition of his scientific contributions. The most prominent of these was the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, shared with Robert Curl and Harold Kroto for the discovery of fullerenes.

Among his other significant awards were:

• The Irving Langmuir Award in Chemical Physics, given by the American Chemical Society for outstanding interdisciplinary research in chemistry and physics.
• The Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award (E. O. Lawrence Award), presented by the U.S. Department of Energy for outstanding contributions in the field of atomic energy.
• The EPS Europhysics Prize, awarded by the European Physical Society.

Smalley was elected to the National Academy of Sciences and was a fellow of multiple scientific societies. His stature within the scientific community extended well beyond chemistry, encompassing physics, materials science, and energy policy.

In December 2024, Rice University held a ceremony displaying the Nobel Prize medals of both Smalley and Curl, marking an occasion to celebrate the university's contributions to science and to honor the legacy of its two Nobel laureates in chemistry.

The American Chemical Society designated the discovery of fullerenes at Rice University as a National Historic Chemical Landmark, further cementing the recognition of Smalley's most celebrated work.

Legacy

Richard Smalley's legacy rests on two interconnected pillars: his fundamental scientific discoveries and his role as a public advocate for the transformative potential of nanotechnology. The discovery of buckminsterfullerene in 1985 opened an entirely new chapter in carbon chemistry and materials science. Fullerenes and their related structures, particularly carbon nanotubes, became central to the emerging field of nanoscience and stimulated research programs around the world that continue to produce new discoveries and applications.

At Rice University, Smalley's influence is preserved through the Smalley-Curl Institute, which carries forward the interdisciplinary nanotechnology research tradition he helped establish. The institute serves as an institutional embodiment of Smalley's conviction that breakthroughs at the nanoscale could address fundamental challenges in energy, health, and the environment.

Smalley's advocacy for nanotechnology as a tool for solving global energy problems was a defining feature of his later career. He articulated a vision in which advanced materials — particularly carbon nanotubes — could revolutionize energy generation, storage, and distribution. His public testimony and writings helped shape the National Nanotechnology Initiative and brought scientific credibility to arguments for increased federal research investment.

His engagement in the molecular assembler debate with Eric Drexler served to clarify the scientific boundaries of nanotechnology and contributed to a more rigorous public discourse about what nanoscale engineering could realistically achieve.

Smalley's former colleagues and students have continued to build upon his research foundations. Wade Adams, who directed the Smalley Institute after Smalley's death, described the institute's mission as a direct continuation of Smalley's vision for nanotechnology's role in addressing humanity's greatest challenges.

The display of Smalley's Nobel medal at Rice University in 2024, nearly two decades after his death, reflected the enduring regard in which he is held by the institution and the broader scientific community. His contributions to the discovery of fullerenes and the development of nanotechnology remain foundational to multiple fields of scientific research and technological development.