Franklin Pierce

Franklin Pierce
Born	Franklin Pierce 23 11, 1804
Birthplace	Hillsborough, New Hampshire, U.S.
Died	Template:Death date and age
Nationality	American
Occupation	Politician, lawyer, military officer
Known for	Fourteenth President of the United States; signing the Kansas–Nebraska Act
Education	Bowdoin College (B.A.)
Spouse(s)	Jane Means Appleton Pierce
Children	3

Franklin Pierce (November 23, 1804 – October 8, 1869) was an American politician and lawyer who served as the fourteenth President of the United States from 1853 to 1857. Born in the hills of New Hampshire to a politically prominent family, Pierce rose swiftly through state and national politics, serving in the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate before resigning to practice law and raise a family. His service as a brigadier general in the Mexican–American War bolstered his public profile, and in 1852, the Democratic Party selected him as a compromise candidate capable of bridging the deepening divide between Northern and Southern factions of the party. Pierce won the presidency in a decisive victory over Whig candidate Winfield Scott, but the triumph was shadowed by profound personal tragedy — the death of his last surviving son in a train accident just weeks before his inauguration. His presidency was dominated by the escalating sectional crisis over slavery. A Northern Democrat who viewed the abolitionist movement as a threat to national cohesion, Pierce signed the Kansas–Nebraska Act in 1854, effectively nullifying the Missouri Compromise and igniting violent conflict in the western territories. He enforced the Fugitive Slave Act and pursued an expansionist foreign policy, including the Gadsden Purchase and a failed attempt to acquire Cuba. These actions eroded his support in the North, and his own party declined to renominate him in 1856. Pierce left office a diminished figure and spent his remaining years in increasing isolation, dying in 1869. Historians have generally ranked him among the least effective American presidents.

Early Life

Franklin Pierce was born on November 23, 1804, in a log cabin in Hillsborough, New Hampshire. He was the fifth of eight children born to Benjamin Pierce and Anna Kendrick Pierce. His father, Benjamin Pierce, was a prominent New Hampshire political figure who had served as a soldier in the American Revolutionary War and went on to become a two-term governor of New Hampshire. The elder Pierce's political career and connections provided the young Franklin with early exposure to the workings of democratic governance and instilled in him a commitment to the Democratic-Republican tradition that would later evolve into allegiance to the Democratic Party.

Growing up in Hillsborough, Pierce was raised in a frontier environment that was nonetheless steeped in political engagement. His father's home served as a gathering place for local and state politicians, and Benjamin Pierce ensured that his children understood the importance of civic participation. Franklin was described as a sociable and personable youth, traits that would serve him throughout his political career.

Pierce's early education took place at local schools in Hillsborough before he was sent to academies in Hancock and Francestown, New Hampshire, to prepare for college. His father placed high value on formal education and was determined that Franklin would receive the academic preparation necessary for a career in law or public service. The family's political standing in New Hampshire ensured that the young Pierce had access to educational opportunities that were not universally available on the New Hampshire frontier in the early nineteenth century.

Education

In 1820, at the age of fifteen, Franklin Pierce entered Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine. At Bowdoin, Pierce formed lasting friendships with several classmates who would go on to prominence, most notably the writer Nathaniel Hawthorne, who remained one of Pierce's closest friends throughout his life. Hawthorne would later write a campaign biography of Pierce during the 1852 presidential election.

Pierce initially struggled academically, ranking near the bottom of his class during his early semesters. However, he applied himself with greater discipline in subsequent years and improved significantly, ultimately graduating fifth in his class in 1824. After graduating from Bowdoin, Pierce studied law, a common path for ambitious young men of his era with political aspirations. He was admitted to the New Hampshire bar in 1827 and began practicing law in Hillsborough, quickly establishing himself as a capable attorney.

Career

New Hampshire Politics and the U.S. House of Representatives

Pierce's entry into politics was swift and aided by his father's standing in New Hampshire's Democratic circles. In 1829, at the age of twenty-four, he was elected to the New Hampshire state legislature, where he served for two terms. By 1831, he had risen to become Speaker of the New Hampshire House of Representatives, a remarkable achievement for so young a politician.

In 1833, Pierce was elected to the United States House of Representatives, where he served two terms representing New Hampshire. As a congressman, Pierce was a reliable supporter of the Democratic Party and its leader, President Andrew Jackson. He supported Jackson's positions on key issues of the day, including opposition to the Bank of the United States and support for westward expansion. Pierce's tenure in the House established his reputation as a loyal party man and an effective, if not particularly distinguished, legislator.

United States Senate

In 1837, the New Hampshire legislature elected Pierce to the United States Senate, making him, at thirty-two, one of the youngest senators in the nation at the time. In the Senate, Pierce continued to align himself with the Democratic Party's mainstream positions. He supported the policies of President James K. Polk and maintained a conciliatory stance toward Southern interests on the question of slavery, a position that reflected both his personal convictions and his party's efforts to maintain national unity.

Despite his political success, Pierce's time in Washington was not entirely fulfilling. His wife, Jane Means Appleton Pierce, whom he had married in 1834, disliked the social life of the capital and was frequently ill. Jane Pierce came from a prominent New England family — her father had been president of Bowdoin College — and she held strong temperance views, which clashed with Pierce's social habits and the convivial culture of Washington politics.

In 1842, Pierce resigned from the Senate and returned to New Hampshire to practice law and attend to his family. His decision was influenced in part by his wife's unhappiness in Washington and in part by his own desire to establish a more stable private life. Pierce's private law practice proved successful, and he became one of the most prominent attorneys in New Hampshire.

Law Practice and Military Service

After leaving the Senate, Pierce built a thriving law practice in Concord, New Hampshire. He remained active in Democratic Party politics at the state level and was appointed United States Attorney for the District of New Hampshire in 1845 by President Polk, a position he held while continuing to manage his private practice.

When the Mexican–American War began in 1846, Pierce volunteered for military service and was commissioned as a colonel in the United States Army. He was subsequently promoted to brigadier general and led a brigade of reinforcements to join General Winfield Scott's campaign to capture Mexico City. Pierce's military service was marked by several engagements, though his record was mixed. He suffered injuries during the campaign, including being thrown from his horse at the Battle of Contreras, which led to a knee injury that hampered his effectiveness in subsequent battles. His performance at the Battle of Churubusco and other engagements drew both praise and criticism, and political opponents later used accusations of fainting on the battlefield to undermine his reputation.

Despite the controversies surrounding his military record, Pierce's service in Mexico enhanced his political profile. He returned to New Hampshire as a war hero in the eyes of many of his supporters, and his military credentials provided an additional dimension to his political resume at a time when military service was considered an important qualification for public office.

1852 Presidential Election

By 1852, the Democratic Party was deeply divided over the issue of slavery and needed a candidate who could appeal to both Northern and Southern factions. The party's national convention, held in Baltimore, saw fierce competition among several prominent candidates, including Lewis Cass, James Buchanan, Stephen A. Douglas, and William L. Marcy. When none of these candidates could secure the necessary two-thirds majority, the convention turned to Pierce as a dark horse compromise candidate on the forty-ninth ballot.

Pierce's appeal lay in his ability to satisfy multiple constituencies within the party. As a Northerner who was sympathetic to Southern concerns about abolitionist agitation, he was seen as a candidate who could hold the party together. His running mate was William Rufus King of Alabama, further balancing the ticket geographically.

Pierce's close friend Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote a campaign biography that helped introduce the relatively obscure candidate to the national electorate. In the general election, Pierce faced Whig candidate Winfield Scott — the same general under whom Pierce had served during the Mexican–American War. Pierce won a decisive victory, carrying twenty-seven of the thirty-one states and receiving 254 electoral votes to Scott's 42. The election marked one of the most lopsided Electoral College victories in American history to that point and effectively destroyed the Whig Party as a national political force.

The period between Pierce's election and his inauguration was marked by devastating personal tragedy. On January 6, 1853, the Pierce family was involved in a train accident near Andover, Massachusetts, in which their eleven-year-old son, Benjamin, was killed before his parents' eyes. Benjamin was the Pierces' last surviving child; their other two sons had died in infancy. The tragedy profoundly affected both Franklin and Jane Pierce. Jane Pierce believed the accident was divine punishment for her husband's political ambition and sank into deep depression. Franklin Pierce entered the presidency in a state of grief that many historians believe affected his capacity to lead during one of the most challenging periods in American history.

Presidency (1853–1857)

Pierce was inaugurated on March 4, 1853, becoming the fourteenth President of the United States. His Vice President, William Rufus King, was gravely ill with tuberculosis at the time of the inauguration and took his oath of office in Cuba, where he had traveled for his health. King died on April 18, 1853, just weeks after being sworn in, leaving the vice presidency vacant for the remainder of Pierce's term.

Pierce entered office with ambitious goals. He attempted to enforce neutral standards for civil service appointments while simultaneously using patronage to satisfy the diverse and often conflicting elements within the Democratic Party. This balancing act largely failed, alienating many party members who felt they had been insufficiently rewarded for their support.

Pierce's cabinet was notable for its stability; all seven of his original cabinet members served throughout his entire term, the only president to achieve this distinction. His Secretary of War, Jefferson Davis — who would later serve as president of the Confederate States of America — was among his closest advisors. The cabinet undertook reforms within their respective departments that improved accountability and administrative efficiency, though these accomplishments were overshadowed by the political crises that defined the Pierce presidency.

The Kansas–Nebraska Act

The defining event of Pierce's presidency was the passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act in 1854. Introduced by Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, the act organized the territories of Kansas and Nebraska and, crucially, allowed the settlers in those territories to determine whether they would permit slavery through the principle of popular sovereignty. This effectively repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had prohibited slavery in territories north of the 36°30' parallel.

Pierce supported the act and signed it into law, believing that popular sovereignty offered a democratic solution to the slavery question that would reduce sectional tensions. The result was the opposite. The act inflamed anti-slavery sentiment in the North and led to a violent struggle in Kansas between pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers that became known as "Bleeding Kansas." The violence in Kansas became a national scandal and further polarized the country along sectional lines.

Pierce's support for the Kansas–Nebraska Act also had profound consequences for the American party system. Opposition to the act spurred the formation of the Republican Party, which united various anti-slavery factions and would go on to elect Abraham Lincoln as president in 1860. Pierce's popularity in the Northern states plummeted, while many Southern whites continued to view him favorably.

Enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act

Pierce further alienated Northern opinion by vigorously enforcing the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, which required that escaped slaves be returned to their owners, even from free states. Pierce used federal marshals and, in some instances, federal troops to ensure compliance with the law. The most prominent case involved Anthony Burns, an escaped slave in Boston whose forced return to the South in 1854 required a military escort and provoked widespread outrage in the North.

Foreign Policy and Expansionism

Pierce pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy in keeping with the Young America movement's vision of extending American influence and territory. His most significant territorial acquisition was the Gadsden Purchase of 1853, in which the United States purchased approximately 29,670 square miles of land from Mexico in what is now southern Arizona and southern New Mexico. The purchase was intended in part to facilitate the construction of a southern transcontinental railroad route.

Pierce also attempted to acquire Cuba from Spain, viewing the island as strategically important to American interests. This effort culminated in the Ostend Manifesto of 1854, a confidential document drafted by three American diplomats — Pierre Soulé, James Buchanan, and John Y. Mason — which argued that the United States should acquire Cuba by purchase or, if Spain refused, by force. When the document was leaked to the public, it provoked a political firestorm. Critics saw the manifesto as a thinly veiled attempt to add a new slave state to the Union, and the resulting controversy further damaged Pierce's standing in the North.

In other areas of foreign policy, Pierce signed trade treaties with Britain and Japan, contributing to the expansion of American commercial interests abroad.

Failure to Secure Renomination

By 1856, Pierce's standing within the Democratic Party had deteriorated to the point that he was unable to secure renomination. Although he had expected the party to support him for a second term, the Democrats instead nominated James Buchanan of Pennsylvania at their national convention. Pierce thus became one of the few incumbent presidents to be denied his party's nomination for a second term.

Post-Presidency

After leaving office in March 1857, Pierce traveled extensively in Europe with his wife before returning to Concord, New Hampshire. During the secession crisis and the Civil War that followed, Pierce was a vocal critic of President Abraham Lincoln and the Republican administration's prosecution of the war. He opposed the Emancipation Proclamation and argued that the war was being fought not to preserve the Union but to advance abolitionist goals. These positions made him deeply unpopular in the North during the war years and contributed to his lasting reputation as a Southern sympathizer.

Jane Pierce died of tuberculosis on December 2, 1863, deepening her husband's isolation and grief. Pierce spent his final years in Concord in relative obscurity, his political reputation in ruins. A heavy drinker for much of his adult life, Pierce died on October 8, 1869, of cirrhosis of the liver. He was buried beside his wife and sons in the Old North Cemetery in Concord, New Hampshire.

Personal Life

Franklin Pierce married Jane Means Appleton on November 19, 1834. Jane was the daughter of Jesse Appleton, a former president of Bowdoin College, and came from a socially prominent New England family with Whig political sympathies. The marriage was in many ways a study in contrasts; Franklin was gregarious and politically ambitious, while Jane was reserved, deeply religious, and opposed to her husband's political career.

The Pierces had three sons, all of whom died in childhood. Their first son, Franklin Jr., was born in 1836 and died three days later. Their second son, Frank Robert, was born in 1839 and died of typhus at the age of four in 1843. Their third and last son, Benjamin, was born in 1841 and was killed in the train accident of January 6, 1853, at the age of eleven. The successive deaths of their children cast a shadow over the Pierces' lives and contributed to Jane Pierce's chronic depression and ill health.

Pierce was known as a sociable and charismatic figure in public life, but he struggled with alcohol throughout his adult life. His drinking was a source of personal difficulty and public comment, and it contributed to his declining health in his later years.

Recognition

Franklin Pierce's historical reputation has been largely negative. Historians have consistently ranked him among the least successful American presidents, citing his inability to address the sectional crisis over slavery and his support for policies that accelerated the nation's march toward civil war. In the C-SPAN Presidential Historians Survey, which has polled historians on multiple occasions, Pierce has consistently ranked near the bottom of the list of American presidents.

Despite his low historical standing as president, Pierce is remembered in his home state of New Hampshire and in several institutions that bear his name. Franklin Pierce University, a private university located in Rindge, New Hampshire, was founded in 1962 and named in his honor. The Franklin Pierce Center for Intellectual Property, associated with the University of New Hampshire School of Law (formerly Franklin Pierce Law Center), is a noted center for the study of intellectual property law.

The Pierce Manse, the home where Franklin and Jane Pierce lived in Concord, New Hampshire, from 1842 to 1848, has been preserved as a historic house museum and is open to the public. The town of Pierceton, Indiana, was named after the president.

Legacy

Franklin Pierce's presidency is most often assessed in terms of his failure to manage the deepening sectional conflict over slavery that would ultimately lead to the American Civil War. As a Northern Democrat who sought to maintain national unity by accommodating Southern demands regarding slavery, Pierce pursued policies that, rather than calming sectional tensions, intensified them. The Kansas–Nebraska Act, which Pierce championed and signed, is widely considered one of the most consequential and divisive pieces of legislation in American history, directly contributing to the collapse of the Second Party System and the rise of the Republican Party.

Pierce's enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act and his administration's involvement in the Ostend Manifesto further cemented his reputation as a president who prioritized the interests of slaveholders over the growing anti-slavery sentiment in the North. His inability to hold his party together or maintain his own political standing resulted in his becoming one of the few sitting presidents to be denied renomination by his own party.

Pierce's post-presidential criticism of Abraham Lincoln and the Union war effort during the Civil War compounded the damage to his historical reputation. His opposition to emancipation and his public sympathy for the Southern cause during the war years left him isolated and vilified in much of the North at the time of his death in 1869.

At the same time, some historians have noted that Pierce faced challenges of enormous magnitude — challenges that arguably exceeded the capacity of any single president to resolve within the constraints of the mid-nineteenth-century political system. The structural tensions between North and South over slavery, territorial expansion, and the nature of the federal union had been building for decades and would not be resolved short of war. Pierce's personal qualities — his affability, his political skill, and his genuine desire for national unity — were insufficient to overcome the forces pulling the nation apart.

Pierce's personal tragedies, including the deaths of all three of his children and his wife's chronic illness and depression, have also been the subject of historical attention. Some scholars have argued that the devastating loss of his last surviving son just weeks before his inauguration impaired his ability to lead effectively during his presidency.

The Biographical Directory of the United States Congress maintains a full entry on Pierce's public service career.