European Union

European Union
Born	1 November 1993
Birthplace	Maastricht, Netherlands (Treaty of Maastricht entry into force)
Occupation	Supranational political and economic union
Known for	European integration, single market, euro currency, Schengen Area, Nobel Peace Prize (2012)
Awards	Nobel Peace Prize (2012)
Website	[https://europa.eu Official site]

The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of 27 member states located primarily in Europe. With a total area of approximately 4,225,104 km² and an estimated population of more than 450 million as of 2025, the EU represents one of the largest and most complex political entities in the modern world. Often described as a sui generis political entity—combining characteristics of both a federation and a confederation—the EU has no precise parallel in the history of international governance. Its member states generated a nominal gross domestic product of around €17.935 trillion in 2024, accounting for approximately one-sixth of global economic output, making it one of the world's foremost economic blocs. The EU traces its origins to the aftermath of World War II, when a generation of European leaders sought to bind the continent's nations together through shared economic and political institutions, beginning with the formation of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952. Through successive treaties—from the Treaty of Rome in 1958 to the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009—the union has expanded in both membership and policy scope, developing institutions that govern matters from trade and agriculture to justice, foreign policy, and defence. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of its contributions to the advancement of peace, reconciliation, democracy, and human rights in Europe.

Early History and Origins

The conceptual foundations of the European Union can be traced to the devastation wrought by two world wars in the first half of the twentieth century. In the immediate aftermath of World War II, European leaders and intellectuals began articulating visions for a politically and economically integrated continent that would render future armed conflict between its member nations structurally impossible. Among the most prominent early advocates was Winston Churchill, who in a 1946 speech at the University of Zurich called for the creation of "a kind of United States of Europe," urging Franco-German reconciliation as the first step toward continental unity.

The process of modern European integration began in earnest in 1948, driven primarily by six founding states known as the "Inner Six": Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany. These nations participated in a series of institutional experiments that laid the groundwork for deeper cooperation. The Western Union, established by the Treaty of Brussels in 1948, represented an early multilateral defence pact, while the International Authority for the Ruhr sought to manage the industrial resources of Germany's Ruhr Valley in the interest of collective European stability.

The most significant institutional milestone of this period was the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), proposed by French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman on 9 May 1950—a date now commemorated annually as Europe Day. The Schuman Declaration proposed placing French and West German coal and steel production under a common authority, open to participation by other European countries. The resulting Treaty of Paris was signed in 1951 and entered into force on 23 July 1952, establishing the ECSC with its six founding members. By pooling control of the raw materials essential for waging war, the ECSC sought to make conflict between France and Germany "not merely unthinkable, but materially impossible," in Schuman's words.

Building on the ECSC's success, the Inner Six signed the Treaty of Rome on 25 March 1957, establishing two new communities: the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). Both treaties entered into force on 1 January 1958. The EEC aimed to create a common market and customs union among its members, facilitating the free movement of goods, services, capital, and labour. Euratom was designed to coordinate member states' research programmes for the peaceful use of nuclear energy. Together with the ECSC, these three communities formed the institutional backbone of European integration for the next three decades.

In 1967, the Merger Treaty consolidated the executive institutions of the three communities, creating a single European Commission and a single Council of Ministers to serve the ECSC, EEC, and Euratom. This institutional streamlining represented an important step toward the more unified governance structure that would later characterize the European Union.

Treaty Framework and Institutional Development

Single European Act

The Single European Act (SEA), which entered into force on 1 July 1987, marked the first major revision of the Treaty of Rome. It set out a timetable for the completion of the internal single market by 31 December 1992, introduced qualified majority voting in the Council for single-market legislation (reducing the ability of individual states to block progress through vetoes), and formally incorporated European Political Cooperation into the treaty framework. The SEA is considered a turning point in European integration, as it accelerated the dismantling of barriers to trade and movement within the Community.

Treaty of Maastricht

The Treaty on European Union, commonly known as the Treaty of Maastricht, was signed on 7 February 1992 and entered into force on 1 November 1993. It formally established the European Union and introduced a three-pillar structure: the European Communities (first pillar), the Common Foreign and Security Policy (second pillar), and Justice and Home Affairs (third pillar). The Maastricht Treaty also established EU citizenship, granting citizens of member states the right to move and reside freely within the union, and set out the criteria and timetable for Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), which would ultimately lead to the adoption of the euro as a common currency.

Treaty of Lisbon

The Treaty of Lisbon, signed on 13 December 2007 and entering into force on 1 December 2009, was the most recent comprehensive reform of the EU's constitutional basis. It abolished the pillar structure introduced at Maastricht, incorporated the EU as an international legal juridical person, strengthened the powers of the European Parliament, created the permanent position of President of the European Council, and established the post of High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. The Treaty of Lisbon also made the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union legally binding.

Enlargement

The EU has undergone multiple rounds of enlargement since the original six founding members established the ECSC in 1952. The first enlargement occurred in 1973, when Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom joined the European Communities. Subsequent enlargements brought in Greece (1981), Spain and Portugal (1986), Austria, Finland, and Sweden (1995), and a major expansion in 2004 that admitted ten states primarily from Central and Eastern Europe. Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007, and Croatia became the 28th member state in 2013.

In total, 22 states acceded to the union and its predecessor communities between 1973 and 2013. In 2016, the United Kingdom voted in a referendum to leave the EU, and on 31 January 2020 it became the first and, as of 2026, the only member state to withdraw from the union, reducing membership to 27 states. As of 2026, ten countries are at various stages of aspiring or negotiating to join the EU, including Ukraine, whose President Volodymyr Zelenskyy has pushed for the country's accession by 2027.

Institutions and Governance

The EU operates through a complex institutional framework, with several key bodies sharing legislative, executive, and judicial functions.

The European Parliament is the directly elected legislative body of the EU, with members elected by citizens of the member states every five years. As of 2026, the President of the European Parliament is Roberta Metsola. The Parliament shares legislative authority with the Council of the European Union and has significant powers over the EU budget and the appointment of the European Commission.

The Council of the European Union (often referred to as the Council of Ministers) represents the governments of the member states. Its presidency rotates among member states on a six-month basis; as of early 2026, Cyprus holds the rotating presidency. Together, the European Parliament and the Council function as the bicameral legislature of the EU.

The European Council, composed of the heads of state or government of the member states, sets the EU's overall political direction and priorities. Since late 2024, the President of the European Council has been António Costa.

The European Commission serves as the EU's executive arm, responsible for proposing legislation, implementing decisions, upholding treaties, and managing the day-to-day affairs of the union. The President of the European Commission, as of 2026, is Ursula von der Leyen, who began her second term in office following the 2024 European Parliament elections.

The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), based in Luxembourg, ensures the uniform interpretation and application of EU law. A landmark early case, Van Gend en Loos v. Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen (1963), established the principle of direct effect, holding that EU law creates rights that individuals can invoke before national courts.

Key Policy Areas

Single Market and Customs Union

The cornerstone of EU economic policy is the Customs Union and the internal single market, which aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital among member states. The single market is based on a standardised legal framework and harmonised legislation that applies in all member states in those policy areas where states have agreed to act collectively. The elimination of customs duties and the harmonisation of regulations have made the EU one of the largest trading blocs in the world.

Economic and Monetary Union

The EU's Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) represents the process by which member states coordinate their economic and fiscal policies and, in many cases, share a common currency. The eurozone comprises the 21 EU member states that have fully adopted the euro (€) as their currency. Member states outside the eurozone participate in the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM II) as a precondition for euro adoption.

Schengen Area

The Schengen Area encompasses most EU member states (along with several non-EU countries) and provides for the abolition of passport controls at mutual borders, allowing for the free movement of persons. The area was established by the Schengen Agreement of 1985 and has since become one of the most tangible manifestations of European integration for ordinary citizens.

Common Foreign and Security Policy

Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), the EU has developed an external relations and defence role. It maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at international organizations including the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, and the G20.

Trade Policy

The EU conducts trade negotiations on behalf of its member states as a bloc, giving it significant leverage in international trade. In February 2026, the EU's trade relationship with the United States entered a period of uncertainty. The EU paused finalization of a trade deal with the U.S. following a series of tariff-related developments, including new tariff threats from U.S. President Donald Trump. EU leaders stated that they would not accept an increase in U.S. tariffs, declaring that "a deal is a deal." European officials also delayed the announcement of a "Made in Europe" industrial policy due to internal disagreements over its scope. Meanwhile, EU officials expressed expectations that the U.S. would ease the impact of metals tariffs in the coming weeks.

Ukraine and the Russia-Ukraine War

The Russia-Ukraine War, which began with Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022, has had a profound impact on EU policy. The EU has been a central supporter of Ukraine, providing economic, humanitarian, and military assistance. On 24 February 2026, marking the fourth anniversary of the invasion, the European Parliament held an extraordinary plenary session at which Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy addressed members of the European Parliament (MEPs), with the Parliament affirming its continued support for Ukraine. European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen discussed the prospect of a €90 billion loan for Ukraine, though she appeared cautious on the timetable for Ukraine's accession to the EU.

Symbols and Identity

The EU employs several symbols intended to foster a sense of shared European identity. Its motto is "United in Diversity" (Template:Lang-la), reflecting the union's commitment to cultural and linguistic pluralism. The EU flag consists of a circle of twelve gold stars on a blue background—the number of stars is fixed at twelve and does not correspond to the number of member states. The EU's anthem is the "European Anthem," based on the "Ode to Joy" from Ludwig van Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. Europe Day is celebrated annually on 9 May, commemorating the anniversary of the Schuman Declaration.

The EU recognizes 24 official languages, reflecting the linguistic diversity of its member states. The demonym for citizens of the EU is "European."

Recognition

The EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2012. The Norwegian Nobel Committee cited the EU's contributions over more than six decades to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy, and human rights in Europe. The award recognized that the EU and its predecessor bodies had transformed Europe from a continent of war into a continent of peace, a process that began with the Franco-German reconciliation at the heart of the ECSC.

The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe has acknowledged the EU's role in European governance and its relationship with broader pan-European institutions.

Legacy

The European Union represents the most advanced experiment in supranational governance in modern history. From its origins in the post-war coal and steel community of six nations, it has grown into a union of 27 states with a combined economy rivaling that of the United States and China. Its institutional innovations—including direct elections to the European Parliament, the establishment of a single currency used by hundreds of millions, and the creation of a borderless travel zone across most of the continent—have no precise equivalent elsewhere in the world.

The EU's legal framework has established principles with far-reaching consequences, including the doctrines of direct effect and supremacy of EU law, which have shaped the relationship between European and national legal systems. The single market has facilitated unprecedented levels of cross-border trade and labour mobility among its member states.

The EU's enlargement from six to 28 members (and subsequently 27 following the United Kingdom's withdrawal in 2020) stands as evidence of the union's capacity to absorb new members and adapt its institutions. The ongoing accession negotiations with several candidate countries, including Ukraine, suggest that further expansion remains a live possibility.

At the same time, the EU faces significant challenges, including managing trade tensions with major partners such as the United States, responding to the security implications of the Russia-Ukraine war, and addressing internal debates over the pace and scope of further integration. The EU's response to these challenges will shape the trajectory of European governance for decades to come.