Andrew Jackson

Andrew Jackson
Formal portrait of Andrew Jackson
Andrew Jackson
Born	15 3, 1767
Birthplace	Waxhaws region, colonial Carolinas, British America
Died	Template:Death date and age Nashville, Tennessee, United States
Nationality	American
Occupation	Politician, military officer, lawyer, planter
Known for	Seventh President of the United States, Battle of New Orleans, Indian Removal Act, founding of the Democratic Party
Spouse(s)	Rachel Donelson Robards (m. 1794; died 1828)
Awards	Congressional Gold Medal

Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was an American soldier, lawyer, planter, and statesman who served as the seventh president of the United States from 1829 to 1837. Born in the backcountry of the colonial Carolinas on the eve of the American Revolution, Jackson rose from humble and often violent origins to become one of the most consequential and polarizing figures in American political history. He gained national fame as the commanding general at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815, a decisive American victory in the War of 1812 that transformed him into a celebrated military hero. Jackson served in both the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate representing Tennessee before ascending to the presidency. His political philosophy and populist appeal to the common white American voter gave rise to what historians have termed Jacksonian democracy, a movement that reshaped the nation's political landscape and laid the groundwork for the modern Democratic Party. His legacy remains deeply contested: he has been praised as a champion of ordinary working Americans and a defender of the federal union, while being condemned for his role in the forced displacement of tens of thousands of Native Americans — a policy that resulted in widespread death and suffering along what became known as the Trail of Tears — and for profiting from the institution of slavery throughout his life.

Early Life

Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, in the Waxhaws region along the border between North Carolina and South Carolina. The precise location of his birth has been a matter of historical dispute, with both states claiming him. His parents, Andrew Jackson Sr. and Elizabeth Hutchinson Jackson, were Scots-Irish immigrants who had arrived in the American colonies from Carrickfergus in County Antrim, Ireland, in 1765. Jackson's father died in an accident shortly before his birth, leaving his mother to raise Andrew and his two older brothers — Hugh and Robert — in poverty, relying on the support of relatives in the Waxhaws settlement.

The American Revolutionary War profoundly shaped Jackson's youth. All three Jackson brothers served in the patriot cause as teenagers. Hugh, the eldest, died from heat exhaustion after the Battle of Stono Ferry in 1779. In 1781, Andrew and Robert were captured by British forces. During their captivity, a British officer slashed Andrew across the face and hand with a sword after the young prisoner refused to clean the officer's boots — an incident that left Jackson with permanent scars and a lifelong hatred of the British. Both brothers contracted smallpox while imprisoned. Robert died from the disease shortly after their release. Elizabeth Jackson subsequently traveled to Charleston to nurse American prisoners of war held on British prison ships and died there of cholera, leaving Andrew an orphan at the age of fourteen.

The losses Jackson endured during the Revolution — his mother and both brothers — instilled in him a fierce sense of independence and a combative temperament that defined his public and private life. With little formal family structure remaining, he spent his adolescence in a restless and sometimes unruly manner, living with various relatives and acquaintances in the Carolina backcountry. Despite his limited formal education, Jackson began studying law in his late teens, a decision that would set the course of his subsequent career.

Education

Jackson's formal schooling was sporadic and limited, shaped by the disruptions of the Revolutionary War and the economic hardships of frontier life. He received a basic education at local schools in the Waxhaws area, where he learned to read and write. His education was not classical in the manner of many of his contemporaries among the founding generation; he did not attend a college or university.

Around 1784, at approximately seventeen years of age, Jackson began studying law under Spruce Macay in Salisbury, North Carolina. He continued his legal training with Colonel John Stokes, another prominent attorney. In 1787, Jackson was admitted to the bar in North Carolina, having completed the informal apprenticeship that served as the standard path to legal practice on the American frontier during that era. Shortly thereafter, he migrated westward to the frontier territory that would become the state of Tennessee, where he established himself as a practicing lawyer and began his ascent in public life.

Career

Early Legal and Political Career

After being admitted to the bar, Jackson moved to the western district of North Carolina — the region that would become Tennessee — in 1788. He settled in Nashville, then a small and rough frontier settlement, and quickly built a reputation as an aggressive and effective prosecutor. His legal work frequently involved debt collection and land disputes, common matters on the expanding frontier. Through his legal practice and land speculation, Jackson began to accumulate wealth and social standing.

Jackson's entry into politics coincided with Tennessee's path to statehood. He was a delegate to the Tennessee constitutional convention in 1796, which drafted the state's first constitution. When Tennessee was admitted to the Union that same year, Jackson was elected as its first representative to the United States House of Representatives. He served in the House for one term before the Tennessee state legislature elected him to the United States Senate in 1797. Jackson found service in the Senate uncongenial and resigned after less than a year. He subsequently accepted appointment as a justice on the Tennessee Superior Court, where he served from 1798 to 1804.

During this period, Jackson also established himself as a planter. He purchased property that became known as the Hermitage, a plantation near Nashville. Over the course of his lifetime, Jackson became a wealthy slaveholder who profited from the forced labor of hundreds of enslaved African Americans. The Hermitage grew into a substantial cotton plantation, and Jackson's economic standing placed him among the elite of Tennessee society, even as he cultivated a public image as a man of the common people.

Military Career

In 1801, Jackson was appointed colonel of the Tennessee militia, and he was subsequently elected its commander. His military career would define his national reputation. When the Creek War erupted in 1813 as part of the broader conflict of the War of 1812, Jackson led Tennessee militia and allied forces against the Red Stick faction of the Creek (Mvskoke) Nation. The campaign culminated in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend on March 27, 1814, a decisive American victory in which Jackson's forces killed an estimated 800 Creek warriors. Following this victory, Jackson negotiated the Treaty of Fort Jackson, which required the Creek Nation — including factions that had allied with the United States — to cede approximately 23 million acres of land in present-day Alabama and Georgia to the federal government.

Jackson's military reputation reached its apex during the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815, the final major battle of the War of 1812. Commanding a diverse force of regular soldiers, militia, free Black men, Choctaw warriors, and Jean Lafitte's privateers, Jackson constructed defensive fortifications along the Rodriguez Canal south of New Orleans. When British forces launched a frontal assault, Jackson's entrenched troops inflicted devastating casualties. The British suffered over 2,000 killed, wounded, or captured, while American losses numbered fewer than 100. The victory, though it occurred after the Treaty of Ghent had been signed (news of the peace treaty had not yet reached the combatants), made Jackson the most celebrated military figure in the United States since George Washington.

Jackson's military campaigns continued after the War of 1812. During the First Seminole War in 1818, he led United States forces into Spanish Florida to combat Seminole (Semvnole) and other allied Native groups. During this campaign, Jackson seized Spanish posts at St. Marks and Pensacola, creating an international diplomatic incident. His aggressive actions in Florida were controversial but contributed to Spain's decision to negotiate the cession of Florida to the United States, finalized in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. Jackson briefly served as Florida's first territorial governor in 1821 before returning to Tennessee.

Presidential Campaigns and the 1824 Election

Jackson's national fame as a military hero propelled him into presidential politics. In 1822, the Tennessee state legislature nominated him for president, and in 1823 he was again elected to the United States Senate, providing him a platform for his presidential ambitions.

The presidential election of 1824 was a four-way contest among Jackson, John Quincy Adams, William H. Crawford, and Henry Clay. Jackson won a plurality of both the popular vote and the electoral vote but failed to secure the majority of electoral votes required for election. Under the terms of the Twelfth Amendment, the election was decided by the House of Representatives. Henry Clay, who had finished fourth and was eliminated from consideration, threw his support behind Adams. The House elected Adams as president in February 1825. When Adams subsequently appointed Clay as his secretary of state, Jackson and his supporters denounced the outcome as a "corrupt bargain," alleging that Clay had traded his political support for a cabinet position.

The aftermath of the 1824 election galvanized Jackson's political movement. His supporters, led by figures such as Martin Van Buren and John C. Calhoun, began constructing a new political coalition that organized opposition to the Adams administration. This coalition evolved into the Democratic Party, formally established in the early 1830s, making Jackson a central figure in the creation of the modern American two-party system.

Presidency (1829–1837)

Jackson ran again for the presidency in 1828 and defeated Adams in a landslide electoral victory. The campaign was notable for its personal attacks on both sides; Jackson's opponents raised questions about his involvement in slave trading and the circumstances of his marriage to Rachel Donelson, which they characterized as "irregular" due to complications surrounding her divorce from her first husband. Rachel Jackson died on December 22, 1828, between the election and the inauguration; Jackson blamed the vicious campaign attacks for her death and carried this bitterness throughout his presidency.

Jackson's inauguration on March 4, 1829, was marked by large, enthusiastic crowds that descended on Washington, symbolizing the populist character of his movement. His presidency was defined by several major conflicts and policy decisions that reshaped the federal government and American society.

Indian Removal

One of the most consequential and controversial actions of Jackson's presidency was the signing of the Indian Removal Act on May 28, 1830. The legislation authorized the president to negotiate treaties with Native American nations in the southeastern United States for their removal to federal territory west of the Mississippi River. Although the act was framed in voluntary terms, its implementation was carried out through coercion, fraud, and military force. Tens of thousands of Native Americans — including members of the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole nations — were forcibly displaced from their ancestral homelands. The removals resulted in thousands of deaths from exposure, disease, and starvation during forced marches that became known collectively as the Trail of Tears. Historians have described this policy as ethnic cleansing.

The Nullification Crisis

Jackson faced a direct challenge to federal authority during the Nullification Crisis of 1832–1833. South Carolina, led by Vice President John C. Calhoun, threatened to nullify — declare void within its borders — the federal tariffs of 1828 and 1832, which the state viewed as economically harmful to Southern agricultural interests. Jackson responded forcefully, declaring nullification incompatible with the Constitution and the survival of the Union. He secured passage of the Force Bill, which authorized the use of military force to enforce federal law. The crisis was resolved through a compromise tariff negotiated by Henry Clay, but Jackson's firm stance in defense of the Union established an important precedent for federal supremacy over state claims of nullification.

The Bank War

Another defining struggle of Jackson's presidency was his war against the Second Bank of the United States. Jackson viewed the Bank, led by its president Nicholas Biddle, as a corrupt institution that served the interests of the wealthy elite at the expense of ordinary Americans. When Henry Clay and Biddle pushed for early rechartering of the Bank in 1832, Jackson vetoed the recharter bill in a message that framed the issue as a contest between the common people and the privileged few. The veto message was a landmark in the expansion of presidential power. After winning reelection in 1832 over Clay, Jackson moved to destroy the Bank by ordering the removal of federal deposits from it and distributing them to selected state banks, which his opponents derisively called "pet banks." This action provoked a fierce political battle and led to the formal censure of Jackson by the United States Senate in 1834 — a censure that was expunged from the record in 1837.

Legacy of the Presidency

Jackson's two terms in office transformed the American presidency. He exercised the veto power more frequently than all previous presidents combined, expanding the role of the executive branch in the legislative process. His use of the spoils system — rewarding political supporters with government appointments — institutionalized patronage as a feature of American politics. He strengthened the power of the presidency relative to Congress and the judiciary, establishing precedents that would be invoked by subsequent presidents.

Jackson declined to seek a third term and was succeeded by his chosen successor, Martin Van Buren, in 1837. He retired to the Hermitage, where he remained active in Democratic Party politics until his death.

Personal Life

Jackson married Rachel Donelson Robards in 1791. The marriage was complicated by the fact that Rachel's divorce from her first husband, Lewis Robards, had not been finalized at the time. When the irregularity was discovered, the couple remarried in 1794 to resolve any legal questions. The circumstances of the marriage were a source of scandal throughout Jackson's political career and were exploited by his opponents during the 1828 presidential campaign. Rachel died on December 22, 1828, shortly after Jackson's election and before his inauguration. Jackson attributed her death to the stress caused by the campaign's personal attacks and mourned her deeply for the remainder of his life.

The Jacksons had no biological children together. They adopted one of Rachel's nephews, whom they named Andrew Jackson Jr. They also served as guardians to several other children over the years.

Jackson was known for his volatile temper and his willingness to resort to personal combat to defend his honor. He participated in several duels during his life, most notably killing Charles Dickinson in a duel in 1806 after Dickinson insulted Rachel. Jackson was struck in the chest during the encounter, carrying the bullet near his heart for the rest of his life.

Jackson died on June 8, 1845, at the Hermitage at the age of 78. He was buried in the garden of the estate alongside Rachel.

Recognition

Jackson's image appeared on the United States twenty-dollar bill beginning in 1928, where it has remained, though efforts to replace it with the image of Harriet Tubman were announced by the United States Department of the Treasury in 2016. He received the Congressional Gold Medal for his military service. Numerous places across the United States bear his name, including Jacksonville, Florida; Jackson, Mississippi; Jackson, Tennessee; and Jackson County in multiple states.

The Hermitage, Jackson's plantation near Nashville, has been preserved as a historic site and museum. It is operated as a memorial to Jackson and serves as a site of historical interpretation. In 2026, the Hermitage unveiled a memorial honoring the 325 enslaved people who lived and worked on the property, reflecting a broader effort to address the full history of the plantation, including the institution of slavery upon which Jackson's wealth was built.

Jackson has been the subject of numerous biographies, historical analyses, and cultural works. His presidency and political philosophy have been studied extensively by historians and political scientists seeking to understand the development of American democracy, the expansion of executive power, and the relationship between populism and governance.

Legacy

Andrew Jackson's legacy occupies a central but deeply contested place in American history. His presidency marked a turning point in the development of American democratic politics. The Jacksonian era saw a significant expansion of suffrage among white men, as property qualifications for voting were reduced or eliminated in many states. Jackson positioned himself as a defender of the common man against entrenched economic and political elites, and his political movement redefined the relationship between the presidency and the American public. The Democratic Party that he helped found became one of the two major American political parties, a role it has maintained into the 21st century.

Jackson's assertion of federal authority during the Nullification Crisis established a precedent that was later invoked by Abraham Lincoln and other presidents in defending the integrity of the Union. His expansion of presidential power — through aggressive use of the veto, his removal of federal deposits from the Bank of the United States, and his confrontation with the Supreme Court — reshaped the office of the presidency itself.

At the same time, Jackson's legacy is inseparable from the suffering inflicted by his policies on Native Americans and the institution of slavery. The Indian Removal Act and its implementation caused the deaths of thousands and the dispossession of entire nations from their ancestral lands. Jackson was a lifelong slaveholder who bought, sold, and profited from enslaved people. These aspects of his record have led to sustained criticism and reevaluation, particularly in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, as historians and the broader public have grappled with the full consequences of his actions.

Jackson's political style — his populist rhetoric, his attacks on institutional elites, his willingness to defy established norms and institutions — has drawn comparisons to subsequent American political figures. His name and example continue to be invoked in contemporary political discourse, both by those who see him as a model of democratic leadership and by those who view his legacy as a cautionary example of the dangers of unchecked executive power and majoritarian tyranny.