Abraham Lincoln

Abraham Lincoln
Born	Abraham Lincoln 12 2, 1809
Birthplace	Hodgenville, Kentucky, United States
Died	Template:Death date and age Washington, D.C., United States
Nationality	American
Occupation	Politician, lawyer
Known for	16th President of the United States; leading the nation through the Civil War; issuing the Emancipation Proclamation; promoting the Thirteenth Amendment
Education	Self-educated
Spouse(s)	Mary Todd Lincoln (m. 1842)
Children	4

Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was the sixteenth president of the United States, serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Born in a one-room log cabin on the Kentucky frontier, Lincoln rose through self-education, the practice of law, and a career in Illinois politics to become one of the most consequential figures in American history. He led the nation through the American Civil War—the bloodiest conflict ever fought on American soil—preserved the Union, and played a central role in the abolition of slavery. His issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, declared enslaved people in Confederate-held territory to be free, and his promotion of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution resulted in the permanent abolition of chattel slavery throughout the country. Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, delivered in November 1863, redefined the meaning of American democracy and remains one of the most quoted speeches in history. Shot by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth at Ford's Theatre on April 14, 1865, just days after the effective end of the war, Lincoln died the following morning. He is consistently ranked in scholarly and popular polls as among the greatest presidents in American history.

Early Life

Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, in a one-room log cabin near Hodgenville, in Hardin County (now LaRue County), Kentucky. He was the second child of Thomas Lincoln, a farmer and carpenter, and Nancy Hanks Lincoln. The Lincoln family lived on the Kentucky frontier during Abraham's earliest years before relocating to Perry County, Indiana, in 1816, partly in response to land-title disputes and opposition to slavery.

Life on the Indiana frontier was demanding. The family carved out a homestead in dense forest, and young Abraham assisted with farm labor from an early age. In 1818, when Lincoln was nine years old, his mother Nancy Hanks Lincoln died. His father remarried the following year to Sarah Bush Johnston, a widow from Kentucky, who brought warmth and stability to the household and encouraged Abraham's education.

Lincoln's formal schooling was sporadic. He later estimated that the aggregate of his school attendance amounted to less than a year. Nevertheless, he was an avid reader from childhood, teaching himself through borrowed books. He read the Bible, Aesop's Fables, John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress, and William Shakespeare's works, developing a command of language and rhetoric that would define his later political career.

In 1830, the Lincoln family moved again, this time to Macon County, Illinois. At twenty-one, Lincoln struck out on his own, eventually settling in New Salem, Illinois, where he worked a series of jobs—as a store clerk, postmaster, and surveyor—while continuing his self-education. It was during this period in New Salem that Lincoln first entered public life, running unsuccessfully for the Illinois state legislature in 1832 before winning a seat in 1834. He also began to study law, reading Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England and other legal texts largely on his own.

Education

Lincoln had no formal higher education. His schooling on the frontier was intermittent and, by his own account, amounted to less than twelve months in total. He was, in the fullest sense, self-educated. During his years in New Salem and Springfield, Illinois, Lincoln studied law independently, borrowing law books and reading them voraciously. He was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1836 and moved to Springfield in 1837 to begin his legal practice. His capacity for rigorous self-instruction became a defining trait of his life and career, and he often counseled aspiring lawyers that the best mode of obtaining a legal education was to read and study on one's own.

Career

Early Political Career and Legal Practice

Lincoln's political career began in 1834 when he won election to the Illinois state legislature as a member of the Whig Party. He served four successive terms in the Illinois House of Representatives, from 1834 to 1842. During this period, he helped move the state capital from Vandalia to Springfield and became an increasingly influential figure in Illinois Whig politics.

Simultaneously, Lincoln developed a thriving law practice in Springfield, eventually becoming one of the most respected attorneys in the state. He handled a wide range of cases, from frontier disputes to complex railroad litigation, and earned a reputation for honesty, sharp logic, and persuasive argumentation. His legal career provided both financial stability and valuable public exposure.

In 1846, Lincoln won election to the United States House of Representatives, serving a single two-year term from 1847 to 1849. During his time in Congress, he introduced the "Spot Resolutions," challenging President James K. Polk's justification for the Mexican–American War by demanding to know the exact spot where American blood had been shed on American soil. His opposition to the war was unpopular in Illinois, and he did not seek re-election. He returned to Springfield and his law practice, seemingly retired from politics.

Return to Politics and the Rise of the Republican Party

Lincoln's return to active political life was prompted by the passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854, championed by Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas. The act effectively repealed the Missouri Compromise by allowing settlers in the Kansas and Nebraska territories to decide for themselves whether to permit slavery through popular sovereignty. Lincoln was angered by what he saw as the expansion of slavery into territories where it had previously been prohibited.

In response, Lincoln re-entered the political arena with renewed energy. He delivered powerful speeches against the Kansas–Nebraska Act throughout Illinois and aligned himself with the newly formed Republican Party, which coalesced around opposition to the spread of slavery into the western territories. Lincoln quickly emerged as a leading figure in the Illinois Republican Party.

In 1858, Lincoln challenged Douglas for his seat in the United States Senate. The campaign produced the famous Lincoln–Douglas debates—a series of seven formal debates held across Illinois that drew national attention. Although Lincoln did not win the popular vote for senator (state legislators chose senators at the time, and the Democratic-controlled legislature re-elected Douglas), the debates elevated Lincoln to national prominence. His articulate arguments against the expansion of slavery, and his moral framing of the issue, earned him a wide following in the northern states.

Presidential Election of 1860

Lincoln secured the Republican Party's presidential nomination at the party convention in Chicago in May 1860. He benefited from his moderate position on slavery—opposing its expansion but not calling for its immediate abolition in the states where it already existed—and from his lack of the political liabilities that burdened other candidates. In the general election, he faced a divided opposition: Stephen A. Douglas (Northern Democrat), John C. Breckinridge (Southern Democrat), and John Bell (Constitutional Union). Lincoln won the election with a plurality of the popular vote and a clear majority in the Electoral College, becoming the first Republican president of the United States.

Lincoln's election was the catalyst for secession. Even before his inauguration on March 4, 1861, seven Southern slave states had seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America, with Jefferson Davis as their president. Four additional slave states would join the Confederacy after the outbreak of hostilities.

The Civil War

The Civil War began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces bombarded Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina, approximately one month after Lincoln's inauguration. Lincoln immediately called for 75,000 volunteer troops to suppress the rebellion and began organizing the federal government for what would become a protracted and devastating conflict.

Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, involving himself in military strategy and the selection of commanding generals to a degree unusual for presidents. He cycled through several commanders of the Army of the Potomac—including George B. McClellan, Ambrose Burnside, Joseph Hooker, and George Meade—before settling on Ulysses S. Grant as general-in-chief in March 1864. Lincoln recognized Grant's willingness to press the offensive and his strategic vision for coordinated campaigns across multiple theaters.

As commander-in-chief, Lincoln authorized a naval blockade of Southern ports, an essential component of the Union's strategy to strangle the Confederacy's economy and its ability to import war materials. He also confronted challenging constitutional questions during the war. In April 1861, Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus, an action that Chief Justice Roger Taney found unconstitutional in the case of Ex parte Merryman. Lincoln justified the suspension as necessary to preserve the Union during an unprecedented insurrection.

In foreign affairs, Lincoln averted potential war with Great Britain through the diplomatic resolution of the Trent Affair in late 1861, when a Union naval captain seized two Confederate envoys from a British mail steamer. Lincoln's decision to release the envoys and defuse the crisis prevented British intervention on the side of the Confederacy.

As a moderate Republican, Lincoln navigated conflicting pressures from radical Republicans who demanded immediate emancipation and conservative Democrats and border-state unionists who resisted any interference with slavery. His approach was pragmatic and deliberate, calibrating his actions to maintain the broadest possible coalition in support of the war effort.

The Emancipation Proclamation and the Thirteenth Amendment

On January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring that all enslaved persons held in states "in rebellion" against the United States were thenceforth free. The proclamation did not immediately free all enslaved people—it exempted border states loyal to the Union and areas of the Confederacy already under Union control—but it fundamentally transformed the character of the war. The conflict became not only a struggle to preserve the Union but also a war for human freedom. The proclamation also authorized the enlistment of Black soldiers into the Union Army and Navy, and by the war's end approximately 180,000 African Americans had served in the armed forces of the United States.

Lincoln recognized that the Emancipation Proclamation, issued as a wartime measure under his authority as commander-in-chief, might not survive legal challenges after the war. He therefore promoted the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which permanently abolished chattel slavery throughout the country. The amendment passed the Senate in April 1864 and, after considerable political maneuvering, cleared the House of Representatives on January 31, 1865. It was ratified by the states on December 6, 1865, months after Lincoln's death.

The Gettysburg Address

On November 19, 1863, Lincoln delivered a brief address at the dedication of the Soldiers' National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, the site of a pivotal Union victory the previous July. In approximately 270 words, Lincoln reframed the meaning of the war, connecting the Union cause to the principles articulated in the Declaration of Independence—that "all men are created equal." The Gettysburg Address became one of the most famous speeches in American history and one of the most quoted statements of democratic ideals.

Re-election and Reconstruction

Lincoln won re-election in November 1864, defeating the Democratic candidate, former Union General George B. McClellan. The election took place during a period of war weariness, but a series of Union military victories in the fall of 1864—including the capture of Atlanta by General William Tecumseh Sherman—bolstered Lincoln's prospects. Lincoln won by a substantial margin in both the popular vote and the Electoral College.

In his second inaugural address, delivered on March 4, 1865, Lincoln struck a tone of reconciliation, urging the nation to proceed "with malice toward none, with charity for all." He envisioned a Reconstruction policy that would heal the divisions of war and reintegrate the Southern states into the Union on generous terms. He had already begun implementing elements of his plan, including a proposal to readmit states once ten percent of their 1860 electorate had taken a loyalty oath.

Assassination

On the evening of April 14, 1865—five days after Confederate General Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House—Lincoln attended a performance of the comedy Our American Cousin at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C. During the third act, John Wilkes Booth, a well-known actor and Confederate sympathizer, entered the presidential box and shot Lincoln in the back of the head with a derringer pistol. Lincoln was carried across the street to the Petersen House, where he lay unconscious through the night. He died at 7:22 a.m. on April 15, 1865, at the age of 56. He was the first president of the United States to be assassinated.

Booth was tracked down and killed by Union soldiers on April 26, 1865, at a farm in Virginia. Several of his co-conspirators were tried by a military tribunal; four were executed.

Personal Life

Lincoln married Mary Todd on November 4, 1842, in Springfield, Illinois. Mary Todd came from a prominent Kentucky family and was well-educated. The couple had four sons: Robert Todd Lincoln (1843–1926), Edward Baker Lincoln (1846–1850), William Wallace Lincoln (1850–1862), and Thomas "Tad" Lincoln (1853–1871). Only Robert survived to adulthood. The death of Edward in 1850 and of William in 1862, the latter occurring while Lincoln was in the White House, caused profound grief for both parents.

Lincoln stood approximately six feet four inches tall, making him the tallest president in United States history. His physical appearance—angular features, tall frame, and eventually his distinctive beard—became iconic. Some medical historians have speculated that Lincoln may have suffered from Marfan syndrome or other genetic conditions, though this remains a subject of scholarly debate.

Lincoln was known throughout his life for his dry humor, his fondness for storytelling, and his occasional bouts of deep melancholy, which some biographers have interpreted as clinical depression. He was not a member of any particular church, though he frequently quoted Scripture and expressed a belief in divine providence, particularly during the war years.

Recognition

Lincoln has been the subject of extensive commemoration in the United States and around the world. The Lincoln Memorial, dedicated in 1922 on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., is one of the most visited monuments in the country. His image appears on the United States penny (since 1909) and the five-dollar bill. Mount Rushmore in South Dakota features Lincoln's likeness alongside those of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Theodore Roosevelt.

In scholarly surveys, Lincoln is consistently ranked as one of the greatest—and frequently the single greatest—president of the United States. A survey of scholars in history, political science, and law published by the Federalist Society placed Lincoln among the top tier of American presidents. Gallup polling has similarly found that Americans rank Lincoln among the top three presidents.

Lincoln's life and presidency have inspired countless works of literature, film, and art. His papers and writings are preserved in major collections, including the Alfred Whital Stern Collection of Lincolniana at the Library of Congress and the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum in Springfield, Illinois. His complete writings are available through the University of Michigan's digital collection of the Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln.

Lincoln continues to be a subject of study and cultural fascination. A 2026 book, Boss Lincoln, examines his mastery of party politics, presenting him as a shrewd political operator who leveraged the machinery of the Republican Party to advance both the war effort and his policy objectives. His portrayal in cinema remains a recurring subject as well; in 2026, it was announced that actor Tom Hanks—reported to be a distant relative of Lincoln—would portray the president in a film adaptation of George Saunders' novel Lincoln in the Bardo.

Legacy

Lincoln's legacy is defined by the preservation of the American Union and the abolition of slavery. At the time of his inauguration in 1861, the United States faced dissolution; by the time of his death in 1865, the rebellion had been defeated and the constitutional framework for ending slavery had been established. These achievements, accomplished amid the greatest crisis in American national history, secured Lincoln's place as a central figure in the American narrative.

His approach to the question of slavery evolved during his political career. Lincoln entered the presidency opposed to the expansion of slavery but not committed to its immediate abolition; by the end of the war, he had become the architect of emancipation. Scholars have extensively debated the nature and trajectory of Lincoln's views on race and equality. While some emphasize his early advocacy of colonization—the voluntary emigration of freed African Americans—and his cautious political positioning, others point to his growth in office and his ultimate embrace of limited Black suffrage in his final public address. The debate reflects the complexity of both the man and the era in which he governed.

Lincoln's assassination transformed him into a martyr figure, deepening the reverence in which he was held in the North and, over time, across the country. His death on the morning of Good Friday, April 15, 1865, gave his sacrifice a quasi-religious dimension in the public imagination. The USS Abraham Lincoln, a Nimitz-class nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, is among the many institutions and vessels named in his honor, underscoring his enduring presence in American public life.

Lincoln's words and example continue to be invoked in American political discourse across the ideological spectrum. His second inaugural address, with its call for reconciliation, and the Gettysburg Address, with its redefinition of American purpose, remain touchstones of democratic rhetoric. More than 160 years after his death, Abraham Lincoln endures as one of the defining figures of the American republic.