Harold Kroto

Sir Harold Kroto
Born	Harold Walter Krotoschiner 7 10, 1939
Birthplace	Wisbech, Cambridgeshire, England
Died	Template:Death date and age Lewes, East Sussex, England
Nationality	British
Occupation	Chemist, academic
Known for	Discovery of buckminsterfullerene (C60)
Education	PhD Chemistry, University of Sheffield (1964)
Awards	Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1996), Knight Bachelor (1996)

Harold Walter Kroto, born Harold Walter Krotoschiner, was an English chemist whose co-discovery of buckminsterfullerene — a spherical molecule composed of sixty carbon atoms arranged in a structure resembling a geodesic dome — reshaped the understanding of carbon chemistry and opened new frontiers in nanotechnology and materials science. For this landmark achievement, he shared the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Robert F. Curl Jr. and Richard E. Smalley. Born in Wisbech, Cambridgeshire, in 1939, Kroto studied chemistry at the University of Sheffield, where he earned both his bachelor's degree and his doctorate. Over a career spanning more than five decades, he held positions at the University of Sussex and Florida State University, contributed to the understanding of interstellar molecules, and became a prominent advocate for science education and rational thinking. Kroto was knighted in 1996 and received numerous other honours throughout his life. He died on 30 April 2016 in Lewes, East Sussex, at the age of 76.

Early Life

Harold Walter Krotoschiner was born on 7 October 1939 in Wisbech, Cambridgeshire, England. His parents were Edith and Heinz Krotoschiner, who had fled from Berlin, Germany, to escape the rise of Nazism. The family name was later shortened to Kroto. Growing up in England during and after the Second World War, Kroto's early years were shaped by the experience of being the child of refugees — an identity that he later reflected on as having instilled in him both a strong work ethic and an appreciation for the freedoms of his adopted country.

As a child, Kroto developed interests that ranged widely across both the arts and the sciences. He was drawn to drawing, design, and graphic arts, passions that remained with him throughout his life and that later informed his approach to molecular architecture and scientific visualisation. He also became fascinated by chemistry, a subject that captured his imagination through the elegant logic of molecular structures and chemical reactions.

Kroto himself spoke about how his multidisciplinary interests — in art, design, and science — coexisted from an early age and shaped his later scientific career. In interviews, he frequently credited his broad upbringing and the cultural background of his family as factors that contributed to his intellectual development.

Education

Kroto pursued his higher education at the University of Sheffield, where he studied chemistry. In 1961, he obtained a first-class BSc honours degree in chemistry. He continued his studies at Sheffield, undertaking doctoral research, and was awarded his PhD in chemistry in 1964. His doctoral work helped establish the foundations of spectroscopic research that would become central to his later career.

Following the completion of his doctorate, Kroto undertook postdoctoral research. His early research interests centred on spectroscopy, a field that uses the interaction of light with matter to study molecular structures. This expertise in spectroscopy proved instrumental in his subsequent investigations of carbon chain molecules in interstellar space and, ultimately, in the discovery of buckminsterfullerene.

In 1995, the University of Sheffield awarded Kroto an honorary Doctor of Science (DSc) degree, recognising his extraordinary contributions to chemistry since his time as a student there.

Career

Early Academic Career at the University of Sussex

In 1967, Kroto joined the faculty of the University of Sussex in Brighton, England, where he would spend the majority of his academic career. At Sussex, he established a research programme focused on spectroscopic studies of unstable and transient molecules. His work initially concentrated on the characterisation of small carbon chain molecules and other reactive species using microwave and photoelectron spectroscopy.

During the 1970s, Kroto's research expanded into the field of astrochemistry — the study of molecules found in interstellar space and stellar atmospheres. Working with Canadian radio astronomers, he was involved in the detection of long carbon chain molecules, including cyanopolyynes (HC₅N, HC₇N, and HC₉N), in the interstellar medium. These discoveries demonstrated that complex carbon-containing molecules could form and survive in the harsh conditions of outer space, a finding that had significant implications for understanding the chemistry of the universe.

Kroto's interest in the formation mechanisms of these long carbon chains in space led him to consider how such molecules might be produced experimentally on Earth. This line of inquiry set the stage for one of the most important experiments in late twentieth-century chemistry.

Discovery of Buckminsterfullerene

In September 1985, Kroto travelled to Rice University in Houston, Texas, to collaborate with Robert F. Curl Jr. and Richard E. Smalley. Smalley had developed a powerful laser vaporisation technique that could be used to study clusters of atoms. Kroto proposed using this apparatus to simulate the conditions in the atmospheres of carbon-rich red giant stars, with the goal of understanding how long carbon chain molecules form in such environments.

During the experiments, the team vaporised graphite with an intense laser pulse and analysed the resulting carbon clusters using a mass spectrometer. They observed a remarkably stable cluster consisting of exactly sixty carbon atoms (C₆₀). After careful analysis and discussion, the researchers proposed that this C₆₀ molecule had a closed-cage structure consisting of twelve pentagonal and twenty hexagonal faces — a truncated icosahedron, the same geometry found in a football (soccer ball) and, notably, in the geodesic domes designed by the architect R. Buckminster Fuller.

In honour of Fuller's architectural innovation, the team named the molecule buckminsterfullerene, a name quickly abbreviated in common parlance to "buckyball." The discovery was published in the journal Nature in November 1985 and generated immediate scientific excitement.

The significance of the discovery was manifold. Prior to 1985, carbon was known to exist in two principal allotropic forms: diamond and graphite. The identification of buckminsterfullerene revealed an entirely new class of carbon allotropes — the fullerenes — which comprised closed-cage molecules of various sizes. This expanded the understanding of carbon chemistry and opened new avenues of research in fields ranging from materials science and nanotechnology to superconductivity and medicinal chemistry.

The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences recognised the importance of this work by awarding the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry jointly to Kroto, Curl, and Smalley "for their discovery of fullerenes." The Academy noted that the discovery had "opened up a vast new field of chemistry" and led to the study of a new class of symmetrical molecules with unique physical and chemical properties.

Continued Research and Fullerene Science

Following the initial discovery, Kroto continued to investigate the properties and formation mechanisms of fullerenes and related carbon nanostructures. He and his collaborators explored how fullerenes might be produced in larger quantities and studied the chemical reactivity of C₆₀ and related cage molecules. The development of methods for producing fullerenes in macroscopic quantities by other research groups in 1990 further accelerated the field, making it possible to conduct a wide range of experiments on the new carbon allotropes.

Kroto's research during this period also encompassed carbon nanotubes, which can be conceptualised as elongated cylindrical fullerenes. The discovery and study of these tubular carbon structures — which possess remarkable tensile strength, electrical conductivity, and thermal properties — further demonstrated the richness of carbon chemistry that the fullerene discovery had revealed.

At the University of Sussex, Kroto was appointed Royal Society Research Professor, a position that allowed him to devote himself fully to research. He continued to publish extensively on fullerene chemistry, carbon nanostructures, and related topics throughout the 1990s and into the 2000s.

Move to Florida State University

In 2004, Kroto accepted a position as Francis Eppes Professor of Chemistry at Florida State University in Tallahassee, Florida, in the United States. This move allowed him to pursue new research directions while also expanding his work in science education and outreach.

At Florida State, Kroto continued his research on carbon nanostructures and also devoted increasing attention to the development of educational initiatives aimed at promoting science literacy worldwide. He became particularly concerned about what he perceived as the declining quality of science education and the growing influence of pseudoscience and anti-rational thinking in public discourse.

Science Education and the GEOSET Initiative

A significant portion of Kroto's later career was dedicated to science education and outreach. He co-founded the GEOSET (Global Educational Outreach for Science, Engineering and Technology) initiative, a programme designed to create and disseminate high-quality, freely available science educational content using the internet and modern multimedia tools.

The GEOSET programme reflected Kroto's belief that science education should be accessible to all people, regardless of their geographical location or economic circumstances. He worked to create a platform where scientists, educators, and students could share lectures, demonstrations, and other educational materials. The initiative continues to operate after his death; the Sir Harold W. Kroto and Steve F.A. Acquah Global Educational Outreach for Science Engineering and Technology (GEOSET) Award is given to students in recognition of excellence in science communication.

Kroto was a frequent and engaging public speaker who delivered lectures around the world on topics ranging from the chemistry of carbon nanostructures to the importance of critical thinking and evidence-based reasoning. In May 2007, he gave a lecture on nanoarchitecture in Brussels that exemplified his ability to communicate complex scientific ideas to diverse audiences.

Advocacy for Science and Rationalism

Throughout his career, and particularly in his later years, Kroto became an outspoken advocate for science, rationalism, and the separation of religious dogma from public policy and education. He expressed concern that the teaching of creationism and intelligent design in schools undermined scientific literacy and critical thinking. Kroto was a vocal atheist who argued that science provided the best framework for understanding the natural world and for making informed decisions about the future of society.

His advocacy extended beyond public lectures to include writing and media appearances. He used his platform as a Nobel laureate to draw attention to what he considered threats to the integrity of science education and to champion the values of intellectual honesty, scepticism, and evidence-based inquiry.

Personal Life

Harold Kroto was known informally as "Harry" to friends, colleagues, and family. His original family name, Krotoschiner, was shortened to Kroto, reflecting the family's adaptation to life in England following their emigration from Germany.

Beyond his scientific work, Kroto maintained a lifelong interest in graphic design and art. He was a skilled artist and designer who applied aesthetic principles to his scientific work, including the visualisation of molecular structures. This combination of artistic and scientific sensibilities was a defining characteristic of his approach to both research and communication.

Kroto spent his final years in Sussex, England. He died on 30 April 2016 in Lewes, East Sussex, at the age of 76. His death was reported widely in the international media, with tributes from scientists, educators, and institutions around the world acknowledging his contributions to chemistry and science education.

Recognition

Kroto received numerous awards and honours over the course of his career, the most prominent of which was the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, shared with Robert F. Curl Jr. and Richard E. Smalley for the discovery of fullerenes. The Nobel committee's recognition brought international attention not only to Kroto himself but also to the broader field of carbon nanoscience that the fullerene discovery had inaugurated.

In the same year as his Nobel Prize, Kroto was made a Knight Bachelor by Queen Elizabeth II, conferring on him the title "Sir." He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS), one of the highest honours available to a scientist in the United Kingdom.

The University of Sheffield, where Kroto had completed his undergraduate and doctoral studies, awarded him an honorary Doctor of Science degree in 1995, the year before his Nobel Prize. The university later named a building — the Kroto Research Institute — in his honour, recognising his status as one of the institution's most distinguished alumni.

Kroto also received the Longstaff Medal and other awards from the Royal Society of Chemistry, as well as honorary degrees from universities around the world. His public lectures and educational initiatives earned him additional recognition, including awards for science communication and public engagement with science.

After his death, the GEOSET initiative he co-founded continued to honour his legacy through the Sir Harold W. Kroto and Steve F.A. Acquah GEOSET Award, given annually to students who demonstrate excellence in science communication and educational outreach.

Legacy

Harold Kroto's discovery of buckminsterfullerene fundamentally expanded the understanding of carbon chemistry and established an entirely new branch of science. The identification of the fullerene family of molecules — and the subsequent discovery of carbon nanotubes — provided the foundation for the field of nanotechnology, which has grown to encompass a vast range of applications in electronics, materials science, medicine, and energy production.

The C₆₀ molecule itself became one of the most recognisable icons of modern science, its soccer-ball shape appearing in textbooks, popular science publications, and even public art. The name "buckyball," coined by Kroto and his collaborators in tribute to Buckminster Fuller, entered the popular vocabulary as a symbol of the beauty and elegance of molecular architecture.

Beyond his direct scientific contributions, Kroto's legacy includes his commitment to science education and his advocacy for rational, evidence-based thinking. His GEOSET initiative represented an early and innovative effort to harness digital technology for the democratisation of scientific knowledge, an approach that has since been adopted by many other educational organisations and platforms.

Kroto's insistence on the integration of art and science — his belief that aesthetic sensibility and scientific rigour were not only compatible but mutually reinforcing — influenced a generation of scientists who sought to communicate their work in visually compelling and publicly accessible ways. His lectures were known for their clarity, wit, and visual richness, qualities that made him one of the most effective science communicators of his era.

At the University of Sheffield, the Kroto Research Institute serves as a lasting tribute to his memory and his scientific achievements, housing interdisciplinary research in nanoscience and advanced materials — fields that owe much of their existence to the experiment Kroto proposed in the autumn of 1985.

Harold Kroto's career, spanning from the spectroscopy of interstellar molecules to the discovery of a new form of carbon to the promotion of science education worldwide, exemplifies the breadth of impact that a single scientific life can achieve. His work continues to influence research, education, and public understanding of science decades after the landmark discovery that brought him international recognition.