Boris Yeltsin

Boris Yeltsin
Official portrait, 1992
Boris Yeltsin
Born	Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin 01 02, 1931
Birthplace	Butka, Ural Oblast, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union
Died	Template:Death date and age Moscow, Russia
Nationality	Russian (Soviet until 1991)
Occupation	Politician, statesman
Known for	First popularly elected President of Russia; instrumental role in the dissolution of the Soviet Union; economic shock therapy and privatization reforms
Education	Ural State Technical University
Spouse(s)	Naina Yeltsina
Children	2
Awards	Order of Merit for the Fatherland

Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin (1 February 1931 – 23 April 2007) was a Soviet and Russian politician who served as the President of Russia from 1991 to 1999. A towering and often contradictory figure in late twentieth-century history, Yeltsin rose from humble origins in the Ural region to become the first popularly and freely elected leader in over a thousand years of Russian history. He earned both admiration and hatred for his central role in burying the Soviet Union and attempting to transform Russia into a market economy and democratic state. A member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1961 to 1990, Yeltsin broke dramatically with the party establishment, becoming the figurehead of the anti-communist movement during the final years of Soviet power. His presidency oversaw the privatization of state assets, a severe economic downturn, a violent constitutional crisis, and two wars in Chechnya before he resigned on the final day of 1999, handing power to his chosen successor, Vladimir Putin.

Early Life

Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin was born on 1 February 1931 in the village of Butka in the Ural Oblast of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, then part of the Soviet Union. He grew up in difficult circumstances during a period of widespread economic hardship and political repression under Joseph Stalin's rule. His family subsequently moved, and Yeltsin spent formative years growing up in the cities of Kazan and Berezniki in the Ural region.

Yeltsin's childhood was shaped by the harsh realities of Soviet life in the 1930s and 1940s. The Ural region, an industrial heartland of the Soviet Union, provided a backdrop of heavy industry and working-class culture that influenced Yeltsin's character and political identity. From an early age, he was known for his physical toughness and competitive spirit. He lost two fingers on his left hand as a child in an accident involving a grenade, an incident that became part of the lore surrounding his formidable persona.

After completing his secondary education, Yeltsin pursued higher studies at the Ural State Technical University (later renamed the Ural Federal University), where he studied construction engineering. Upon graduating, he entered the construction industry, working in various capacities in the Sverdlovsk region. His early career in construction provided him with practical experience in managing large projects and navigating Soviet bureaucratic structures, skills that would later serve him in his political career.

Education

Yeltsin attended the Ural State Technical University in Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg), where he studied construction engineering. The university, one of the leading technical institutions in the Ural region, provided Yeltsin with a professional foundation in engineering and construction management. His education at the institution was characteristic of the Soviet emphasis on technical and industrial training during the post-war period. After completing his degree, Yeltsin entered the construction industry, where he worked for several years before transitioning into full-time political work within the Communist Party apparatus.

Career

Rise Through the Communist Party

Yeltsin joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in 1961 and steadily advanced through its ranks over the following decades. His career within the party was built on his reputation as an energetic and effective administrator. In 1976, he was appointed First Secretary of the Sverdlovsk Oblast committee of the Communist Party, a powerful regional position that gave him control over one of the most industrialized areas of the Soviet Union.

In this role, Yeltsin oversaw the economic and political administration of the Sverdlovsk region, gaining a reputation as an ambitious and sometimes unconventional party boss. His tenure in Sverdlovsk brought him to the attention of the senior Soviet leadership, and in 1985, following Mikhail Gorbachev's rise to power as General Secretary of the CPSU, Yeltsin was brought to Moscow to serve in the national party apparatus.

Yeltsin was initially an enthusiastic supporter of Gorbachev's perestroika reforms, which aimed to restructure the Soviet economic and political system. He was appointed First Secretary of the Moscow City Committee of the Communist Party, effectively making him the political leader of the Soviet capital. In this role, he gained popularity among ordinary Muscovites for his populist gestures, including riding public transportation and visiting shops to expose shortages and corruption.

However, Yeltsin soon grew frustrated with what he perceived as the slow and insufficient pace of reform. He publicly criticized the reforms as being too moderate and called for a more rapid transition toward a multi-party representative democracy. This put him on a collision course with the conservative elements of the party and increasingly with Gorbachev himself. In 1987, Yeltsin became the first person to resign from the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, an act of political defiance that was unprecedented in Soviet history. This dramatic break with the party establishment transformed Yeltsin into an anti-establishment figure and earned him a reputation as the leader of the anti-communist opposition movement within the Soviet system.

Election as President and the August Coup

Yeltsin's break with the party did not end his political career; rather, it propelled him to new prominence. In 1990, he was elected chair of the Russian Supreme Soviet, the legislative body of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the largest and most powerful of the Soviet Union's constituent republics.

On 12 June 1991, Yeltsin won the presidential election of the Russian SFSR, becoming the first popularly elected head of state in Russian history. This election represented a historic milestone: for the first time in over a thousand years, the Russian people had directly chosen their leader through a free and competitive ballot.

Six weeks after his election, Yeltsin faced the defining moment of his political career. In August 1991, hardline Communist officials attempted a coup d'état against Gorbachev, seeking to reverse the reforms and restore centralized Soviet power. Yeltsin famously climbed atop a tank outside the Russian White House (the parliament building) in Moscow and rallied popular resistance against the coup plotters. His defiant stand became one of the most iconic images of the late twentieth century and galvanized public opposition to the coup, which collapsed within days. The event cemented Yeltsin's status as a champion of democratic reform and fatally weakened the authority of the Soviet central government.

In the aftermath of the failed coup, Yeltsin allied with the leaders of other Soviet republics and was instrumental in the formal dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991. With the dissolution, the Russian SFSR became the Russian Federation, an independent sovereign state, and Yeltsin continued in office as its president.

Economic Reforms and Shock Therapy

Upon assuming leadership of the newly independent Russian Federation, Yeltsin embarked on an ambitious program of economic transformation. He oversaw the transition of Russia's command economy into a capitalist market economy by implementing what became known as "economic shock therapy." This program included the rapid liberalization of market exchange rates for the ruble, nationwide privatization of state-owned enterprises, and the lifting of price controls that had been in place throughout the Soviet era.

The results of these reforms were devastating for millions of ordinary Russians. Economic downturn, volatility, and severe inflation ensued in the early and mid-1990s. The value of the ruble dropped significantly, wiping out the savings of millions of citizens. Poverty rates soared, and the social safety net that had existed under the Soviet system largely disintegrated. Life expectancy, particularly for Russian men, declined sharply during this period.

Amid the economic upheaval, the privatization process resulted in the concentration of vast national property and wealth in the hands of a small number of individuals who became known as the oligarchs. These businessmen, many of whom had connections to the former Soviet nomenklatura or had exploited the chaotic transition period, acquired major state assets — including oil companies, metals conglomerates, and media outlets — at prices far below their actual value through controversial "loans-for-shares" auctions. International monopolies also came to dominate significant portions of the Russian market. The economic crisis culminated in the Russian financial crisis of 1998, when the government defaulted on its debt and the ruble collapsed further, plunging millions more Russians into poverty.

Constitutional Crisis of 1993

The early years of Yeltsin's presidency were marked by an escalating power struggle between the president and the Russian parliament (the Supreme Soviet and the Congress of People's Deputies). The conflict centered on the direction and pace of economic reforms, as well as the fundamental question of the distribution of power between the executive and legislative branches of government.

In September 1993, the crisis reached its climax when Yeltsin ordered the unconstitutional dissolution of the Russian parliament. The parliament responded by impeaching Yeltsin and declaring Vice President Alexander Rutskoy to be the acting president. For nearly two weeks, a tense standoff ensued, with parliamentary supporters barricading themselves inside the White House.

The crisis ended violently in early October 1993 when troops loyal to Yeltsin stormed the parliament building and suppressed an armed uprising by parliamentary supporters. The assault on the White House, broadcast on television worldwide, resulted in significant casualties. Following the crisis, Yeltsin governed the country largely by presidential decree until 1994, as the Supreme Soviet of Russia had ceased to exist.

In December 1993, Yeltsin introduced a new constitution through a national referendum. The new constitution significantly expanded the powers of the president at the expense of the legislature, creating a system of governance in which the president held dominant authority over the executive branch, the military, and foreign policy. Critics argued that this concentration of power laid the groundwork for the authoritarian tendencies that would characterize subsequent Russian governance.

The Chechen Wars

Secessionist sentiment in the Russian Caucasus region presented one of the most intractable challenges of Yeltsin's presidency. The Chechen Republic, led by former Soviet military officer Dzhokhar Dudayev, had declared independence from Russia in 1991, and efforts at negotiation failed to resolve the dispute.

In December 1994, Yeltsin ordered Russian military forces into Chechnya, initiating the First Chechen War. The conflict proved far more costly and difficult than the Russian military leadership had anticipated, with poorly equipped and poorly trained Russian conscripts suffering heavy casualties against determined Chechen fighters. The war devastated the Chechen capital of Grozny and caused massive civilian suffering. The conflict ended in 1996 with a ceasefire agreement that effectively granted Chechnya de facto independence, though it remained formally part of the Russian Federation.

In 1999, during the final months of Yeltsin's presidency, hostilities resumed with the War of Dagestan and the Second Chechen War, which began in response to incursions by Chechen militants into the neighboring republic of Dagestan and a series of apartment bombings in Russian cities. The second conflict was managed primarily by Prime Minister Vladimir Putin and would continue well beyond Yeltsin's time in office.

Foreign Policy and Relations with the West

Internationally, Yeltsin promoted renewed collaboration with Europe and the Western democracies, seeking to integrate Russia into the global economic and political order. He signed arms control agreements with the United States, building on the legacy of Cold War-era negotiations, and pursued a generally cooperative relationship with the administration of U.S. President Bill Clinton.

The relationship between Yeltsin and Clinton became one of the defining diplomatic partnerships of the 1990s, though it was not without tension. Documents declassified by the National Security Archive reveal that the question of NATO expansion eastward was a persistent source of friction. Yeltsin heard various assurances and explanations from the Clinton administration regarding NATO's plans to incorporate former Warsaw Pact states and former Soviet republics into the alliance. Despite Yeltsin's objections, NATO proceeded with its first post-Cold War expansion in 1999, admitting Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic — a development that continued to shape Russian foreign policy grievances for decades afterward.

Yeltsin's personal interactions with Western leaders were at times memorable for reasons beyond diplomacy. A 1994 state visit to Washington became the subject of considerable media attention when Yeltsin was reportedly found outside the White House in a state of intoxication, an incident that underscored growing concerns about his health and personal conduct.

1996 Re-election and Final Years in Office

By 1996, Yeltsin's popularity had plummeted due to the economic crisis, the Chechen War, and perceptions of widespread corruption. Nevertheless, he stood for re-election in the 1996 Russian presidential election against Communist Party candidate Gennady Zyuganov. Yeltsin won re-election, though critics asserted that the election was marred by irregularities and manipulation, including the heavy use of state resources and media bias in favor of the incumbent.

Yeltsin's second term was marked by deteriorating health, frequent changes of prime minister, and continued economic difficulties. He suffered repeated health crises, including heart problems that required surgery. The 1998 financial crisis further eroded public confidence in his leadership.

On 31 December 1999, in a televised address to the nation, Yeltsin unexpectedly announced his resignation as president, effective immediately. He apologized to the Russian people for the hardships they had endured and handed power to Prime Minister Vladimir Putin, who became acting president. Putin subsequently won the presidential election in March 2000.

Personal Life

Yeltsin married Naina Iosifovna Girina (later known as Naina Yeltsina) in 1956, and the couple had two daughters, Yelena and Tatyana. Naina Yeltsina remained a private figure throughout much of her husband's political career but became more publicly visible during and after his presidency.

Yeltsin's personal life was frequently the subject of public scrutiny, particularly regarding his health and alcohol consumption. His drinking became a matter of international attention and concern, with numerous public incidents raising questions about his fitness for office. His health deteriorated significantly during his second term as president, and he underwent coronary bypass surgery in 1996.

After leaving office, Yeltsin lived in retirement in Moscow. He maintained a relatively low public profile, occasionally appearing at public events but largely withdrawing from political life. Boris Yeltsin died on 23 April 2007, at the age of 76, from congestive heart failure. He was given a state funeral, the first for a Russian head of state since the pre-Soviet era, attended by world leaders and dignitaries.

Recognition

Yeltsin's place in history has been the subject of considerable debate. He was recognized internationally for his role in the peaceful dissolution of the Soviet Union and for his stand against the August 1991 coup, which was described by the Cato Institute as "Boris Yeltsin's finest moment." His defiance atop a tank during the coup attempt remains one of the most recognizable images of the end of the Cold War.

In Russia, assessments of Yeltsin's legacy have been more mixed. While some credit him with ending Communist rule and attempting to establish democratic institutions, many Russians associate his presidency with economic collapse, the rise of the oligarchs, and national humiliation on the world stage. Polling conducted in the years after his death consistently showed that a majority of Russians held a negative view of the Yeltsin era.

The Boris Yeltsin Presidential Center, a museum and cultural complex dedicated to his life and presidency, was opened in Yekaterinburg in 2015. It serves as both a memorial to Yeltsin and an educational institution focused on the history of modern Russia.

Legacy

The legacy of Boris Yeltsin is among the most contested of any modern political leader. His supporters credit him with dismantling the Soviet Communist system, introducing democratic elections and a free press to Russia, and opening the country to the outside world after decades of isolation. His role in preventing the success of the August 1991 coup is frequently cited as a pivotal moment in world history that ensured the peaceful end of the Soviet Union.

His critics, however, point to the enormous social cost of the economic reforms he championed. The shock therapy program, while supported by Western economic advisors, resulted in a catastrophic decline in living standards for tens of millions of Russians. The privatization process created a class of oligarchs whose wealth and political influence distorted Russia's fledgling democratic institutions. The constitutional crisis of 1993 and the subsequent expansion of presidential power are seen by many analysts as having established the institutional framework that later enabled authoritarian governance under his successors.

The question of whether Vladimir Putin's authoritarian rule was an inevitable consequence of the Yeltsin era remains a subject of scholarly and journalistic debate. A recent book about Boris Nemtsov, a liberal politician who served under Yeltsin and later became a prominent critic of Putin before his assassination in 2015, explores whether a different path was possible for Russia after the Soviet collapse.

Yeltsin's decision to hand power to Putin on New Year's Eve 1999 is perhaps the single act for which he is most frequently judged in hindsight. While Yeltsin reportedly believed Putin would continue Russia's democratic trajectory, the subsequent consolidation of authoritarian power under Putin cast a long shadow over Yeltsin's democratic legacy. Russia's first elected president thus remains a figure of profound historical significance and enduring controversy — a man who helped end one era of Russian authoritarianism but whose choices may have contributed to the emergence of another.